BIOL10008

• 读图（diagram-reading）：题目给图，你要能“标注结构、识别阶段、读出信息”。[16]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfSUBMIT 16 . MST DiagramBEFORE YOU Discipline · State the function the structure forces - never stop at naming. SIA > If the question shows a picture, the marks are in labelling it precisely and explaining the mechanism it depicts - not in retelling the topic. asksia. ai/cheatsheet/ unimelb-biol10008 . side 2/2 AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 good luck. read the diagram first. SIDE 2/2 INFORMATION - ENERGY - CONTROL . DNA replication . The central dogma . Cell cycle & mitosis . Enzymes . ATP & metabolism . Signalling . Genetics VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb-biol10008 BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER[1]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe process broken into numbered moves Short-answer marks come from describing a mechanism in order 4 . Analogy One vivid everyday comparison A memory hook for the exam room - recall the analogy, recover the biology 5 . Exam application What the MST does with it, and the trap to dodge Turns understanding into marks i Read the picture first 先读图 Before reading any caption, look at the diagram and ask "what is each labelled part, and what would change if it were different?" The structure-function caption then confirms or corrects your read. Training this habit is the whole point - the MST shows you diagrams and asks you to interpret them. 在阅读任何图注之前,先看图并自问“每个标注的部分 是什么,如果它不一样会有什么改变?”结构→功能 的图注随后会确认或纠正你的解读。训练这一习惯正 是全部要点所在 -- MST 会向你展示图示并要求你加 以解读。 ✓ Re-draw, don't re-read 重新画,别重新读 On revision, cover the diagram and re-draw it from memory with labels, then check. If you can draw the phospholipid bilayer, the replication fork and the active site - and say what each part does - you are exam-ready for most of the structural marks. 复习时,遮住图示并凭记忆重新画出并加上标注,然 后核对。如果你能画出磷脂双分子层、复制叉和活性 位点 -- 并说出每个部分的功能 -- 你就为大多数结 构类题目的得分做好了应试准备。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery ! Two things this book is careful about 本书特别留心的两件事 (1) Standard biology facts and named structures are stated plainly - base pairing, the bilayer and the organelles are textbook science. (2) Where we describe how this subject frames or tests an idea, it is paraphrased, and all diagrams are our own schematics, never copied figures. Always verify assessment details against Canvas/the LMS before the MST. (1) 标准的生物学事实与已命名的结构都直白陈述 -- 碱基配对、双分子层和各种细胞器都是教科书科学。(2)凡涉及 描述本学科如何框定或考查某一概念之处,均为转述,且所有图示都是我们自制的示意图,绝非照搬的插图。MST 之前 请务必对照 Canvas/LMS 核实考核细节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery BLUEPRINT - THE ASSESSMENT BLUEPRINT MST + REPORT + HURDLE Where the marks live 分数藏在哪里 And why this is a subject you have to show up for 以及为什么这是一门你必须到场的课 Foundational Biology is assessed in three quite different ways, and they reward different things. The headline is the invigilated mid-semester test (MST) - a closed-book, on-screen test that rewards reading diagrams and explaining mechanisms. But the piece that can fail you outright is the practical attendance hurdle. (Figures paraphrased - confirm on your LMS. ) 基础生物学有三种相当不同的考核方式,它们各自奖励不同的东西。重头戏是有监考的期中测验(MST) -- 一场闭卷、上 机的测验,奖励读图与解释机制的能力。但能直接让你挂科的,是实践课出勤这道硬门槛。(数据为转述 -- 请在你的 LMS 上确认。)
• 解释机制（mechanism）：短答题的分数来自“把机制按顺序讲清楚（step-by-step）”。[1]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe process broken into numbered moves Short-answer marks come from describing a mechanism in order 4 . Analogy One vivid everyday comparison A memory hook for the exam room - recall the analogy, recover the biology 5 . Exam application What the MST does with it, and the trap to dodge Turns understanding into marks i Read the picture first 先读图 Before reading any caption, look at the diagram and ask "what is each labelled part, and what would change if it were different?" The structure-function caption then confirms or corrects your read. Training this habit is the whole point - the MST shows you diagrams and asks you to interpret them. 在阅读任何图注之前,先看图并自问“每个标注的部分 是什么,如果它不一样会有什么改变?”结构→功能 的图注随后会确认或纠正你的解读。训练这一习惯正 是全部要点所在 -- MST 会向你展示图示并要求你加 以解读。 ✓ Re-draw, don't re-read 重新画,别重新读 On revision, cover the diagram and re-draw it from memory with labels, then check. If you can draw the phospholipid bilayer, the replication fork and the active site - and say what each part does - you are exam-ready for most of the structural marks. 复习时,遮住图示并凭记忆重新画出并加上标注,然 后核对。如果你能画出磷脂双分子层、复制叉和活性 位点 -- 并说出每个部分的功能 -- 你就为大多数结 构类题目的得分做好了应试准备。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery ! Two things this book is careful about 本书特别留心的两件事 (1) Standard biology facts and named structures are stated plainly - base pairing, the bilayer and the organelles are textbook science. (2) Where we describe how this subject frames or tests an idea, it is paraphrased, and all diagrams are our own schematics, never copied figures. Always verify assessment details against Canvas/the LMS before the MST. (1) 标准的生物学事实与已命名的结构都直白陈述 -- 碱基配对、双分子层和各种细胞器都是教科书科学。(2)凡涉及 描述本学科如何框定或考查某一概念之处,均为转述,且所有图示都是我们自制的示意图,绝非照搬的插图。MST 之前 请务必对照 Canvas/LMS 核实考核细节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery BLUEPRINT - THE ASSESSMENT BLUEPRINT MST + REPORT + HURDLE Where the marks live 分数藏在哪里 And why this is a subject you have to show up for 以及为什么这是一门你必须到场的课 Foundational Biology is assessed in three quite different ways, and they reward different things. The headline is the invigilated mid-semester test (MST) - a closed-book, on-screen test that rewards reading diagrams and explaining mechanisms. But the piece that can fail you outright is the practical attendance hurdle. (Figures paraphrased - confirm on your LMS. ) 基础生物学有三种相当不同的考核方式,它们各自奖励不同的东西。重头戏是有监考的期中测验(MST) -- 一场闭卷、上 机的测验,奖励读图与解释机制的能力。但能直接让你挂科的,是实践课出勤这道硬门槛。(数据为转述 -- 请在你的 LMS 上确认。)[2]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf实验出勤是一项门槛要求 -- 你必须出席规定比例的 实验课(转述为约 80%)才能通过本学科,这与你的 测验和报告成绩无关。再出色的 MST 和报告成绩也无 法挽救缺席的实验课。请将实验出勤视为不可妥协的 事项,并在 Canvas 上核对确切的门槛比例。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery ★ The strategy this dictates 由此决定的策略 The MST is closed-book and time-pressured (~38 marks in 60 min), so it cannot test obscure recall - it tests whether you understand the machinery. Recurring moves: read a phylogenetic key, predict a bond/force from electronegativity, trace condensation/hydrolysis, link structure to function (saturation-fluidity, R-groups-fold), and describe a mechanism (transport, replication, the secretory pathway) step by step. The AHA-UNIT format is built to drill exactly this. MST 为闭卷且时间紧张(60分钟约38分),因此它 无法考查冷僻的死记内容一 -它考查的是你是否理解 这套机制。反复出现的题型:阅读系统发育检索表、 由电负性预测某种键/力、追踪缩合反应/水解、将结 构与功能联系起来(饱和度→流动性、R基团→折 叠),以及逐步描述某一机制(运输、复制、分泌途 径)。AHA UNIT 这一格式正是为演练这些而设计的。 i The report (20%) 实验报告(20%) The written component - a Progress Task / Group Report tied to your practical work - is marked on how clearly you handle data, method and scientific reasoning. It is a different skill from the MST: do not leave it to the last lab. Exact format and due dates live on the LMS. 书面部分 -- 与你的实验工作挂钩的进度任务/小组报告 -- 的评分依据是你处理数据、方法和科学推理的清晰程度。它 与 MST 是不同的技能:不要拖到最后一次实验课才动手。确切的格式与截止日期请见 LMS。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CONTENTS CONTENTS The machinery, bottom-up 从底层往上看这套机器 From atoms to molecules to the cell that runs on them 从原子到分子,再到靠它们运转的细胞 Ch Topic AHA units inside Part 1 . The chemistry of life 1 What is life & the chemistry of life atoms . bonds . water . IMFs . the master reaction → Part 2 . The molecules of life 2 The four biomolecules carbohydrates · lipids . proteins . nucleic acids → Part 3 . The cell 3 The cell & its organelles prokaryote vs eukaryote · organelles · endomembrane . SA:V → i Why this order 为什么是这个顺序 Biology nests: atoms bond into molecules, molecules into the four biomolecules, and biomolecules assemble the cell. We follow that ladder so every later structure rests on a force or a bond you have already seen. The single idea threaded through all three chapters - intermolecular forces and shape decide function - is the one the MST rewards most. 生物学层层嵌套:原子键合为分子,分子构成四类生物大分子,生物大分子又组装成细胞。我们沿着这架阶梯讲解,使 后面的每个结构都建立在你已经见过的某种力或某种键之上。贯穿全部三章的那个单一概念 -- 分子间作用力与形状决 定功能 -- 正是 MST 最看重的。 ✓ How to move through it

• 先 点名结构/部件是什么 → 再 说这个结构“迫使/决定”了什么功能（structure → function）。[16]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfSUBMIT 16 . MST DiagramBEFORE YOU Discipline · State the function the structure forces - never stop at naming. SIA > If the question shows a picture, the marks are in labelling it precisely and explaining the mechanism it depicts - not in retelling the topic. asksia. ai/cheatsheet/ unimelb-biol10008 . side 2/2 AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 good luck. read the diagram first. SIDE 2/2 INFORMATION - ENERGY - CONTROL . DNA replication . The central dogma . Cell cycle & mitosis . Enzymes . ATP & metabolism . Signalling . Genetics VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb-biol10008 BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 你可以把它理解成：“Describe + So-what（描述 + 所以呢）” 比纯记忆更容易拿分。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).

• 第 1 遍：每章 TL;DR + 看所有图（按顺序）。[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent
• 第 2 遍：遮住图注，凭记忆重画并标注，再对答案。[1]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe process broken into numbered moves Short-answer marks come from describing a mechanism in order 4 . Analogy One vivid everyday comparison A memory hook for the exam room - recall the analogy, recover the biology 5 . Exam application What the MST does with it, and the trap to dodge Turns understanding into marks i Read the picture first 先读图 Before reading any caption, look at the diagram and ask "what is each labelled part, and what would change if it were different?" The structure-function caption then confirms or corrects your read. Training this habit is the whole point - the MST shows you diagrams and asks you to interpret them. 在阅读任何图注之前,先看图并自问“每个标注的部分 是什么,如果它不一样会有什么改变?”结构→功能 的图注随后会确认或纠正你的解读。训练这一习惯正 是全部要点所在 -- MST 会向你展示图示并要求你加 以解读。 ✓ Re-draw, don't re-read 重新画,别重新读 On revision, cover the diagram and re-draw it from memory with labels, then check. If you can draw the phospholipid bilayer, the replication fork and the active site - and say what each part does - you are exam-ready for most of the structural marks. 复习时,遮住图示并凭记忆重新画出并加上标注,然 后核对。如果你能画出磷脂双分子层、复制叉和活性 位点 -- 并说出每个部分的功能 -- 你就为大多数结 构类题目的得分做好了应试准备。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery ! Two things this book is careful about 本书特别留心的两件事 (1) Standard biology facts and named structures are stated plainly - base pairing, the bilayer and the organelles are textbook science. (2) Where we describe how this subject frames or tests an idea, it is paraphrased, and all diagrams are our own schematics, never copied figures. Always verify assessment details against Canvas/the LMS before the MST. (1) 标准的生物学事实与已命名的结构都直白陈述 -- 碱基配对、双分子层和各种细胞器都是教科书科学。(2)凡涉及 描述本学科如何框定或考查某一概念之处,均为转述,且所有图示都是我们自制的示意图,绝非照搬的插图。MST 之前 请务必对照 Canvas/LMS 核实考核细节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery BLUEPRINT - THE ASSESSMENT BLUEPRINT MST + REPORT + HURDLE Where the marks live 分数藏在哪里 And why this is a subject you have to show up for 以及为什么这是一门你必须到场的课 Foundational Biology is assessed in three quite different ways, and they reward different things. The headline is the invigilated mid-semester test (MST) - a closed-book, on-screen test that rewards reading diagrams and explaining mechanisms. But the piece that can fail you outright is the practical attendance hurdle. (Figures paraphrased - confirm on your LMS. ) 基础生物学有三种相当不同的考核方式,它们各自奖励不同的东西。重头戏是有监考的期中测验(MST) -- 一场闭卷、上 机的测验,奖励读图与解释机制的能力。但能直接让你挂科的,是实践课出勤这道硬门槛。(数据为转述 -- 请在你的 LMS 上确认。)[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent
• 第 3 遍（考前）：只看 “结构→功能”图注 + “考试会怎么考”提示（这就是得分点地图）。[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer

• IMFs 会反复回到：膜流动性、蛋白折叠、DNA 稳定性。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).[18]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdftarget proteins in different cells - same doorbell, different households. Signals are classed by source & distribution (autocrine, paracrine, endocrine/hormonal, direct contact). So specificity comes from which receptors & target proteins a cell carries same messenger, different outcome. 15 . THE SPINE structure-function recap 1. IMFs explain everything - saturation->packing->fluidity; R- groups->fold->function; base pairing->DNA stability. 2. Condensation/hydrolysis = anabolism/catabolism- build-vs-break recurs. 3. Surface-area-to-volume - folded inner membranes (cristae/thylakoids) maximise reaction surface. 4. Endosymbiosis evidence - double membrane + circular DNA + own ribosomes + binary fission. 5. Specificity via shape - active sites, receptors, anticodon-codon, base pairing: right shape unlocks function. SUBMIT 16 . MST DiagramBEFORE YOU Discipline · State the function the structure forces - never stop at naming. SIA > If the question shows a picture, the marks are in labelling it precisely and explaining the mechanism it depicts - not in retelling the topic. asksia. ai/cheatsheet/ unimelb-biol10008 . side 2/2 AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 good luck. read the diagram first. SIDE 2/2 INFORMATION - ENERGY - CONTROL . DNA replication . The central dogma . Cell cycle & mitosis . Enzymes . ATP & metabolism . Signalling . Genetics VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb-biol10008

• 这对反应是全课“复用最多”的概念。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT[9]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf§ ATP's stated job ATP 的明确职责 Per the course, ATP's primary function is to capture and transfer free energy within the cell - it links the reactions that release energy to the reactions that need it. It is the intermediary, not the ultimate energy source. 按本课程所述,ATP 的主要功能是在细胞内捕获并转 移自由能 -- 它把释放能量的反应与需要能量的反应 连接起来。它是中介者,而非终极能量来源。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . COUPLING - BIOMOLECULE CREATION & DESTRUCTION One pair of reactions builds and breaks everything 一对反应构建并拆解一切 Condensation & hydrolysis - the chemistry under all metabolism 缩合反应与水解 -- 所有代谢背后的化学 The build-vs-break logic of metabolism is, at the molecular level, the same pair of reactions you met with the biomolecules: condensation joins monomers and releases water; hydrolysis splits polymers and consumes water. Condensation is anabolic; hydrolysis is catabolic. This is the single most reused idea in the course. 代谢中构建与拆解的逻辑,在分子层面上正是你在生物大分子中见过的同一对反应:缩合反应连接单体并释放水;水解拆开聚 合物并消耗水。缩合反应属合成代谢,水解属分解代谢。这是本课程中复用最多的单一概念。 4 Condensation & hydrolysis - AHA unit 4 缩合反应与水解 -- AHA unit D7 released H2O new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer -OH H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added FIG 3 - The master reaction. Condensation joins two monomers into a polymer, forming a covalent bond (glycosidic / peptide / ester) and releasing a water molecule - this is anabolic. Hydrolysis is the reverse: it adds water to break the bond - this is catabolic. 图 3 -- 主反应。缩合反应将两个单体连接为聚合物,形成一个共价键(糖苷键/肽键/酯键)并释放一个水分子 -- 这是 合成代谢的。水解是其逆过程:它加入水以断键 -- 这是分解代谢的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).

• 课程用“折叠内膜（比如线粒体嵴/类囊体）最大化反应表面”来训练结构→功能思维（摘录里点到这一条脊梁总结）。[18]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdftarget proteins in different cells - same doorbell, different households. Signals are classed by source & distribution (autocrine, paracrine, endocrine/hormonal, direct contact). So specificity comes from which receptors & target proteins a cell carries same messenger, different outcome. 15 . THE SPINE structure-function recap 1. IMFs explain everything - saturation->packing->fluidity; R- groups->fold->function; base pairing->DNA stability. 2. Condensation/hydrolysis = anabolism/catabolism- build-vs-break recurs. 3. Surface-area-to-volume - folded inner membranes (cristae/thylakoids) maximise reaction surface. 4. Endosymbiosis evidence - double membrane + circular DNA + own ribosomes + binary fission. 5. Specificity via shape - active sites, receptors, anticodon-codon, base pairing: right shape unlocks function. SUBMIT 16 . MST DiagramBEFORE YOU Discipline · State the function the structure forces - never stop at naming. SIA > If the question shows a picture, the marks are in labelling it precisely and explaining the mechanism it depicts - not in retelling the topic. asksia. ai/cheatsheet/ unimelb-biol10008 . side 2/2 AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 good luck. read the diagram first. SIDE 2/2 INFORMATION - ENERGY - CONTROL . DNA replication . The central dogma . Cell cycle & mitosis . Enzymes . ATP & metabolism . Signalling . Genetics VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb-biol10008

• 证据会考“为什么这说明它来自细菌”。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[8]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . PRACTICE Q11-14 - PRACTICE BANK (CONT. ) MIXED . Q11-14 Cells, inheritance & mitosis 细胞、遗传与有丝分裂 Four more items spanning the MST window 再来四道题,覆盖整个 MST 范围 Q11 MCQ endosymbiosis evidence Which observation is the best single piece of evidence that the mitochondrion descended from a free-living bacterium? 下列哪一项观察是“线粒体起源于一种自由生活的细菌”这一论断的最佳单一证据? (a) it is found in eukaryotic cells (b) it has a single membrane (c) it has its own circular DNA and can divide by binary fission - correct (d) it makes ATP MODEL ANSWER (c). Own circular (bacteria-like) DNA + division by binary fission (plus a double membrane and bacteria-like ribosomes) point to a bacterial ancestor. (b) is wrong - it has a double membrane; (a)/(d) are true but not evidence of bacterial origin. (c)。自身的环状(类似细菌的)DNA+以二分裂方式增殖(再加上双层膜和类似细菌的核糖体)指向一个细菌祖先。(b) 是错误的 -- 它有双层膜;(a)/(d) 虽属事实,但并非细菌起源的证据。 Q12 READ THE DIAGRAM mitosis stages XX XX XXX Xxx Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles Telophase two nuclei, cvtokinesis[18]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdftarget proteins in different cells - same doorbell, different households. Signals are classed by source & distribution (autocrine, paracrine, endocrine/hormonal, direct contact). So specificity comes from which receptors & target proteins a cell carries same messenger, different outcome. 15 . THE SPINE structure-function recap 1. IMFs explain everything - saturation->packing->fluidity; R- groups->fold->function; base pairing->DNA stability. 2. Condensation/hydrolysis = anabolism/catabolism- build-vs-break recurs. 3. Surface-area-to-volume - folded inner membranes (cristae/thylakoids) maximise reaction surface. 4. Endosymbiosis evidence - double membrane + circular DNA + own ribosomes + binary fission. 5. Specificity via shape - active sites, receptors, anticodon-codon, base pairing: right shape unlocks function. SUBMIT 16 . MST DiagramBEFORE YOU Discipline · State the function the structure forces - never stop at naming. SIA > If the question shows a picture, the marks are in labelling it precisely and explaining the mechanism it depicts - not in retelling the topic. asksia. ai/cheatsheet/ unimelb-biol10008 . side 2/2 AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 good luck. read the diagram first. SIDE 2/2 INFORMATION - ENERGY - CONTROL . DNA replication . The central dogma . Cell cycle & mitosis . Enzymes . ATP & metabolism . Signalling . Genetics VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb-biol10008

• 活性位点、受体、碱基配对、密码子-反密码子，本质都是“对得上形状才发生作用”。[18]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdftarget proteins in different cells - same doorbell, different households. Signals are classed by source & distribution (autocrine, paracrine, endocrine/hormonal, direct contact). So specificity comes from which receptors & target proteins a cell carries same messenger, different outcome. 15 . THE SPINE structure-function recap 1. IMFs explain everything - saturation->packing->fluidity; R- groups->fold->function; base pairing->DNA stability. 2. Condensation/hydrolysis = anabolism/catabolism- build-vs-break recurs. 3. Surface-area-to-volume - folded inner membranes (cristae/thylakoids) maximise reaction surface. 4. Endosymbiosis evidence - double membrane + circular DNA + own ribosomes + binary fission. 5. Specificity via shape - active sites, receptors, anticodon-codon, base pairing: right shape unlocks function. SUBMIT 16 . MST DiagramBEFORE YOU Discipline · State the function the structure forces - never stop at naming. SIA > If the question shows a picture, the marks are in labelling it precisely and explaining the mechanism it depicts - not in retelling the topic. asksia. ai/cheatsheet/ unimelb-biol10008 . side 2/2 AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 good luck. read the diagram first. SIDE 2/2 INFORMATION - ENERGY - CONTROL . DNA replication . The central dogma . Cell cycle & mitosis . Enzymes . ATP & metabolism . Signalling . Genetics VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb-biol10008[25]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfmRNA, tRNA, rRNA Picture the players: mRNA = the recipe card, tRNA = the waiter carrying one ingredient, rRNA = the kitchen bench where it all comes together. Shape = job: a flat message, a key-shaped adaptor, a machine that reads. 10c . Reading a Sequence MST DRILL 1. Find the template - RNA pol reads it 3'-> 5' 2. Build mRNA 5'-> 3' - complementary, with U for T 3. Split into codons from the start (AUG) 4. Read the codon table -> the peptide, N->C Mind the reading frame: shift by one base and every downstream codon changes. Because the code is redundant, a base change can be silent - but a frameshift rarely is. 10d . The Ribosome Sites A . P . E · A site - arrival of the next charged tRNA · E site - spent tRNA exits The ribosome ratchets one codon at a time until a stop codon is reached and the polypeptide is released. 11 . Cell Cycle L9 . REGULATED & Mitosis DIVISION Eukaryotic cell cycle: G0 (resting) / G1 (prep) / S (DNA synthesis) / G2 (prep) / M (mitosis). Gated at checkpoints by Cyclin-CDK complexes - the cell only divides after passing each. M Interphase G1 => 5 => G2 G1 G2 G0 S DNA synthesis

• 六大元素：C, H, O, N, P, S。[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 碳为什么重要：能形成 4 条稳定共价键 → 能搭建长链/分支/环状骨架。[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent

• 定义：电负性是原子对“共享成键电子对”的吸引力。差异越大，键越“偏极性/离子性”。[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 常见判断链：非极性共价 → 极性共价 → 离子键（按电负性差异增加）。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).

• LDF（伦敦色散力）：临时偶极；分子越大/越不分支一般越强。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 偶极-偶极（dipole-dipole）。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 氢键（H-bond）：需要 H 与 F/O/N 相连并靠近孤对电子；在这套表里被强调为强的 IMF。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 离子-偶极（ion-dipole）：在表里放得更强。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 易错点：氢键是“分子间作用力（IMF）”，不是共价键；题目会故意混淆。[10]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf共价键将原子维系于分子内部;分子间作用力(IMF) 则把整个个体的分子相互吸引。MST 会故意把二者混 淆 -- 氢键是分子之间的一种力,而非共价键。 Same one bond, billions of times: weak alone, life-supporting in bulk. 同样的一种键,重复亿万次:单独时微弱,成批时则支撑着生命。 THE THREAD OF THE CHAPTER ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to explain a water property from H-bonding (why marine animals enjoy stable temperatures; why water climbs xylem) and to rank IMFs. Remember the analogy: IMFs are magnets - fleeting static cling (LDF) up to a firm grip (H-bond). 预期你需要由氢键解释某项水的性质(为什么海洋动物享有稳定的温度;为什么水能沿木质部上升)并对 IMF 排序。记 住那个类比:IMF 就像磁铁 -- 从转瞬即逝的静电吸附(LDF)到牢固的紧握(氢键)。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . MASTER REACTION CHAPTER 1 (CONT. ) The master reaction: condensation & hydrolysis 核心反应:缩合反应与水解 How every biomolecule is built - and broken 每一个生物大分子是如何被构建 -- 又如何被拆解 TL;DR: Cells join monomers by condensation (a bond forms, one water leaves) and break polymers by hydrolysis (water is added, the bond breaks). It is the single most reused idea in the course - building vs breaking, which returns later as anabolism vs catabolism 太长不看:细胞通过缩合反应把单体连接起来(形成一根键,失去一个水分子),并通过水解把聚合物拆开(加入水,键断 裂)。这是本课程中被复用得最多的一个思想 -- 构建 vs 拆解,它稍后会以合成代谢 vs 分解代谢的形式再次出现。 FIG 1. 1 . D7 H2O released new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer ) - ОН H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added Condensation joins two monomers and releases one H20, forming a new covalent bond (glycosidic in sugars, peptide in proteins, ester in lipids). Hydrolysis runs it backwards: a water molecule is consumed to split the bond.

• 高比热/热缓冲（thermal buffer）。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 内聚力 + 附着力（cohesion + adhesion）→ 木质部上升（xylem rise）。[10]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf共价键将原子维系于分子内部;分子间作用力(IMF) 则把整个个体的分子相互吸引。MST 会故意把二者混 淆 -- 氢键是分子之间的一种力,而非共价键。 Same one bond, billions of times: weak alone, life-supporting in bulk. 同样的一种键,重复亿万次:单独时微弱,成批时则支撑着生命。 THE THREAD OF THE CHAPTER ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to explain a water property from H-bonding (why marine animals enjoy stable temperatures; why water climbs xylem) and to rank IMFs. Remember the analogy: IMFs are magnets - fleeting static cling (LDF) up to a firm grip (H-bond). 预期你需要由氢键解释某项水的性质(为什么海洋动物享有稳定的温度;为什么水能沿木质部上升)并对 IMF 排序。记 住那个类比:IMF 就像磁铁 -- 从转瞬即逝的静电吸附(LDF)到牢固的紧握(氢键)。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . MASTER REACTION CHAPTER 1 (CONT. ) The master reaction: condensation & hydrolysis 核心反应:缩合反应与水解 How every biomolecule is built - and broken 每一个生物大分子是如何被构建 -- 又如何被拆解 TL;DR: Cells join monomers by condensation (a bond forms, one water leaves) and break polymers by hydrolysis (water is added, the bond breaks). It is the single most reused idea in the course - building vs breaking, which returns later as anabolism vs catabolism 太长不看:细胞通过缩合反应把单体连接起来(形成一根键,失去一个水分子),并通过水解把聚合物拆开(加入水,键断 裂)。这是本课程中被复用得最多的一个思想 -- 构建 vs 拆解,它稍后会以合成代谢 vs 分解代谢的形式再次出现。 FIG 1. 1 . D7 H2O released new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer ) - ОН H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added Condensation joins two monomers and releases one H20, forming a new covalent bond (glycosidic in sugars, peptide in proteins, ester in lipids). Hydrolysis runs it backwards: a water molecule is consumed to split the bond.[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 极性溶剂：能溶解极性溶质（如葡萄糖在血液中）。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 两性（amphiprotic）：可供/受 $H^+$。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• pH：与 $H^+$ 浓度差有关（摘录只给了这句层级，不展开公式）。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).

• 缩合反应（condensation）
  • 两个单体连接，形成一根共价键，并且 释放 1 个水分子。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT[9]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf§ ATP's stated job ATP 的明确职责 Per the course, ATP's primary function is to capture and transfer free energy within the cell - it links the reactions that release energy to the reactions that need it. It is the intermediary, not the ultimate energy source. 按本课程所述,ATP 的主要功能是在细胞内捕获并转 移自由能 -- 它把释放能量的反应与需要能量的反应 连接起来。它是中介者,而非终极能量来源。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . COUPLING - BIOMOLECULE CREATION & DESTRUCTION One pair of reactions builds and breaks everything 一对反应构建并拆解一切 Condensation & hydrolysis - the chemistry under all metabolism 缩合反应与水解 -- 所有代谢背后的化学 The build-vs-break logic of metabolism is, at the molecular level, the same pair of reactions you met with the biomolecules: condensation joins monomers and releases water; hydrolysis splits polymers and consumes water. Condensation is anabolic; hydrolysis is catabolic. This is the single most reused idea in the course. 代谢中构建与拆解的逻辑,在分子层面上正是你在生物大分子中见过的同一对反应:缩合反应连接单体并释放水;水解拆开聚 合物并消耗水。缩合反应属合成代谢,水解属分解代谢。这是本课程中复用最多的单一概念。 4 Condensation & hydrolysis - AHA unit 4 缩合反应与水解 -- AHA unit D7 released H2O new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer -OH H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added FIG 3 - The master reaction. Condensation joins two monomers into a polymer, forming a covalent bond (glycosidic / peptide / ester) and releasing a water molecule - this is anabolic. Hydrolysis is the reverse: it adds water to break the bond - this is catabolic. 图 3 -- 主反应。缩合反应将两个单体连接为聚合物,形成一个共价键(糖苷键/肽键/酯键)并释放一个水分子 -- 这是 合成代谢的。水解是其逆过程:它加入水以断键 -- 这是分解代谢的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
  • 代谢角色：合成代谢（anabolic），构建、能量输入（energy in）。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT
• 水解（hydrolysis）
  • 加入/消耗 1 个水分子 来 断开键（聚合物拆成更小单元）。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT[9]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf§ ATP's stated job ATP 的明确职责 Per the course, ATP's primary function is to capture and transfer free energy within the cell - it links the reactions that release energy to the reactions that need it. It is the intermediary, not the ultimate energy source. 按本课程所述,ATP 的主要功能是在细胞内捕获并转 移自由能 -- 它把释放能量的反应与需要能量的反应 连接起来。它是中介者,而非终极能量来源。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . COUPLING - BIOMOLECULE CREATION & DESTRUCTION One pair of reactions builds and breaks everything 一对反应构建并拆解一切 Condensation & hydrolysis - the chemistry under all metabolism 缩合反应与水解 -- 所有代谢背后的化学 The build-vs-break logic of metabolism is, at the molecular level, the same pair of reactions you met with the biomolecules: condensation joins monomers and releases water; hydrolysis splits polymers and consumes water. Condensation is anabolic; hydrolysis is catabolic. This is the single most reused idea in the course. 代谢中构建与拆解的逻辑,在分子层面上正是你在生物大分子中见过的同一对反应:缩合反应连接单体并释放水;水解拆开聚 合物并消耗水。缩合反应属合成代谢,水解属分解代谢。这是本课程中复用最多的单一概念。 4 Condensation & hydrolysis - AHA unit 4 缩合反应与水解 -- AHA unit D7 released H2O new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer -OH H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added FIG 3 - The master reaction. Condensation joins two monomers into a polymer, forming a covalent bond (glycosidic / peptide / ester) and releasing a water molecule - this is anabolic. Hydrolysis is the reverse: it adds water to break the bond - this is catabolic. 图 3 -- 主反应。缩合反应将两个单体连接为聚合物,形成一个共价键(糖苷键/肽键/酯键)并释放一个水分子 -- 这是 合成代谢的。水解是其逆过程:它加入水以断键 -- 这是分解代谢的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery[14]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf说明水分子在(i) 缩合反应和(ii)水解中分别发生了什么,并指出二者在代谢中各代表哪一过程。 MODEL ANSWER BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery (i) Condensation releases one water molecule as a bond forms (building - anabolism). (ii) Hydrolysis adds/consumes water to break a bond (breaking down - catabolismfull marks need the water direction + the anabolism/catabolismlink. (i)缩合反应在成键时释放一个水分子(构建→合成代谢)。(ii)水解加入/消耗水以断键(拆解→分解代谢)。要拿满分, 需写出水的方向+与合成代谢/分解代谢的对应关系。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . PRACTICE Q3-4 - PRACTICE BANK (CONT. ) DIAGRAM-READING Read the diagram - membrane & replication 读图 -- 膜与复制 Interpret our cookbook figures, then explain the structure-> function logic 解读我们的图解,再讲清结构与功能的逻辑 READ THE DIAGRAM membrane FIG Q3 Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tails Cholesterol Î Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Using the figure: (a) why are the phospholipid tails pointed into the centre rather than facing the watery fluids? (b) Which labelled feature lets a charged ion cross, and why can't the ion cross the bilayer directly? 结合图示:(a)为什么磷脂的尾部指向中心而非朝向两侧的水性液体?(b)哪个标注的结构能让带电离子穿过,以及为 什么离子无法直接穿过磷脂双分子层? MODEL ANSWER (a) The tails are hydrophobic (non-polar): they are excluded from water, so they pack together in the membrane core while the hydrophilic heads face the aqueous fluids on both sides - the bilayer self-organises this way. (b) The channel protein: a charged ion cannot pass the non-polar tail core directly (like repels the hydrophobic interior), so it crosses through a protein pore (facilitated diffusion). Marker's eye: link polarity - position - barrier function. (a) 尾部是疏水的(非极性):它们被水排斥,因此在膜的核心区聚集在一起,而亲水的头部朝向两侧的水性液体 -- 磷脂双 分子层正是这样自组装的。(b)通道蛋白:带电离子无法直接穿过非极性的尾部核心区(同性相斥于疏水内部),因此它经由 蛋白质孔道穿过(易化扩散)。阅卷要点:将极性→位置→屏障功能联系起来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery replication fork
  • 代谢角色：分解代谢（catabolic），拆解、能量输出（energy out）。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT

• 看到“聚合物 → 单体”（消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋白）＝水解＝分解代谢；看到“单体 → 聚合物”（造 DNA/蛋白/淀粉）＝缩合＝合成代谢。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT

• 乐高：扣起来挤出一滴水（缩合）；掰开要加一滴水（水解）。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).

• 糖类：糖苷键 glycosidic bond。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT[11]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfGLOSSARY 1/ 3 - BILINGUAL GLOSSARY Key terms - English . ++x . definition 关键术语 -- 英文 · 中文 · 定义 Biomolecules, and the cell & its organelles 生物大分子,以及细胞及其细胞器 The exact term, its Chinese gloss, and a one-line definition - the ~45 words the MST keeps reusing. Learn the English term for the exam and use the X to lock in the meaning. 精确的术语、其中文释义,以及一行定义 -- 这是 MST 反复使用的约 45个词。为应试请记住英文术语,并用中文来锁定其 含义。 Term · 术语 中文 One-line definition Biomolecules – 生物大分子 Monomer / Polymer 单体 / 聚合物 A single subunit (monomer) vs a long chain of repeating subunits (polymer). Condensation reaction 缩合反应 Joins two monomers and releases one water molecule (forms a bond). Hydrolysis 水解反应 Splits a bond by adding water - the reverse of condensation. Carbohydrate 碳水化合物(糖类) Sugars and their polymers; monomer = monosaccharide (e. g. glucose). Glycosidic bond 糖苷键 The covalent bond linking two sugar units (e. g. a-1,4). Cellulose / Starch / 纤维素 / 淀粉/ 糖 Glycogen 原 Glucose polymers: structural (B), plant store, animal store (a). Lipid
• 蛋白：肽键 peptide bond。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT
• 脂质：酯键 ester bond。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT
• 核酸：磷酸二酯键 phosphodiester bond。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT

4.1 碳水化合物（Carbohydrates）

• 单体：单糖 monosaccharide（举例：葡萄糖）。[11]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfGLOSSARY 1/ 3 - BILINGUAL GLOSSARY Key terms - English . ++x . definition 关键术语 -- 英文 · 中文 · 定义 Biomolecules, and the cell & its organelles 生物大分子,以及细胞及其细胞器 The exact term, its Chinese gloss, and a one-line definition - the ~45 words the MST keeps reusing. Learn the English term for the exam and use the X to lock in the meaning. 精确的术语、其中文释义,以及一行定义 -- 这是 MST 反复使用的约 45个词。为应试请记住英文术语,并用中文来锁定其 含义。 Term · 术语 中文 One-line definition Biomolecules – 生物大分子 Monomer / Polymer 单体 / 聚合物 A single subunit (monomer) vs a long chain of repeating subunits (polymer). Condensation reaction 缩合反应 Joins two monomers and releases one water molecule (forms a bond). Hydrolysis 水解反应 Splits a bond by adding water - the reverse of condensation. Carbohydrate 碳水化合物(糖类) Sugars and their polymers; monomer = monosaccharide (e. g. glucose). Glycosidic bond 糖苷键 The covalent bond linking two sugar units (e. g. a-1,4). Cellulose / Starch / 纤维素 / 淀粉/ 糖 Glycogen 原 Glucose polymers: structural (B), plant store, animal store (a). Lipid[20]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfElements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis). 3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants
• 结构异构体：glucose/galactose/fructose 是 structural isomers（摘录有提）。[20]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfElements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis). 3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants
• $\alpha$ vs $\beta$-glucose 的关键差别（高频）
  • 差在 C1 位的 -OH 朝向：down = $\alpha$，up = $\beta$。[20]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfElements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis). 3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants
  • “就这一个翻转决定一切”。[20]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfElements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis). 3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants
• 多糖与功能（常考配对）
  • 纤维素 cellulose（$\beta$）：$\beta$-1,4 键；直链 → 链间 H-bond 成纤维束 → 结构支撑（植物细胞壁）。[20]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfElements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis). 3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 淀粉 starch（$\alpha$）：$\alpha$-1,4 + 1,6；植物储能。[20]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfElements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis). 3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants
  • 糖原 glycogen（$\alpha$）：$\alpha$-1,4 + 1,6；动物储能（肝等）。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS[28]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGlycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleotide = base (A,T/U,C,G) + pentose (deoxyribose/ribose) + phosphate. Base pairing A-T (2 H-bonds), C-G (3 H-bonds) is the most stable fit - and is why DNA self-copies & self-repairs. Chargaff logic: %A=%T & %C=%G => double-stranded; presence of T DNA not RNA. Strands are antiparallel (5'->3' opposite) - a zipper whose teeth only fit their partner, run in opposite directions on each side. Double helix Complementary base pairing P A T P Mitochondrion P Ribosomes Our schematic . the eukaryotic cell - each membrane-bound organelle is one specialised 'department' .

4.2 脂质（Lipids）

• 关键点：“不算真正的聚合物（not true polymers）”；很多性质来自非极性部分与 LDF 累积。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
• 三大常见类型（配对题常出）
  • 甘油三酯 triglyceride：glycerol + 3 fatty acids。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 磷脂 phospholipid：glycerol + 2 tails + 带电磷酸头 → 两亲性 amphipathic → 形成膜双层。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 类固醇 steroid：融合环（例：胆固醇 cholesterol）。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
• 饱和度 = 杠杆（直接连到膜流动性）
  • 饱和脂肪酸（无 $C=C$）→ 排列紧 → LDF 强 → 更“固”。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 不饱和（有 $C=C$ 形成 kink）→ 排列松 → 更“流动”。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
• 功能（会出选择/匹配）
  • 储能（能量密度高、轻）。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 激素（steroids）。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 保温（blubber）。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS
  • 膜结构、运输（lipoproteins）。[24]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf3 . The Four T1 . Biomolecules STRUCTURE-FUNCTION 1 . CARBOHYDRATES Monomer = monosaccharide (C6H1206). Glucose/galactose/fructose are structural isomers. a- vs ß-glucose differ only in the C1 -OH (down = a, up = B) - and that one flip decides everything: POLYSACCHARIDE BONDS FUNCTION Cellulose (B) ß-1,4 structural; alternating-flipped > straight chains H-bonded into fibrils (plant wall) Starch (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in plants Glycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS

4.3 蛋白质（Proteins）

• 氨基酸基本结构：$\alpha$-C + H + $-NH_2$ + $-COOH$ + 可变 R 基团。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary[29]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfAmino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary 2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO
• 肽键 peptide bond：缩合形成的酰胺键（condensation amide）。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary
• 结构层级（高频默写/配对）
  • 1°：氨基酸序列（N→C）。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary[29]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfAmino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary 2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO
  • 2°：$\alpha$-helix / $\beta$-sheet（来自主链 H-bond）。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary[29]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfAmino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary 2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO
  • 3°：R 基团相互作用驱动折叠（H-bond、离子、ion-dipole、二硫键 $-S-S-$、疏水 LDF）。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary[29]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfAmino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary 2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO
  • 4°：多条链组合（较少考）。[29]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfAmino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary 2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO
• 变性 denaturation（非常常考）
  • 2°/3° 结构丢失 → 功能丢失；热/ pH/溶剂可引起；热最强（动能振动破坏相互作用）。[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control[29]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfAmino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary 2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO
  • 核心句：shape is function。[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control

4.4 核酸（Nucleic acids）

• 核苷酸 nucleotide = 碱基（A,T/U,C,G）+ 五碳糖（脱氧核糖/核糖）+ 磷酸。[28]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGlycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleotide = base (A,T/U,C,G) + pentose (deoxyribose/ribose) + phosphate. Base pairing A-T (2 H-bonds), C-G (3 H-bonds) is the most stable fit - and is why DNA self-copies & self-repairs. Chargaff logic: %A=%T & %C=%G => double-stranded; presence of T DNA not RNA. Strands are antiparallel (5'->3' opposite) - a zipper whose teeth only fit their partner, run in opposite directions on each side. Double helix Complementary base pairing P A T P Mitochondrion P Ribosomes Our schematic . the eukaryotic cell - each membrane-bound organelle is one specialised 'department' .
• 碱基配对与稳定性
  • A=T：2 个氢键；G≡C：3 个氢键 → G=C 更难分开（题目会让你推断）。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[28]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGlycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleotide = base (A,T/U,C,G) + pentose (deoxyribose/ribose) + phosphate. Base pairing A-T (2 H-bonds), C-G (3 H-bonds) is the most stable fit - and is why DNA self-copies & self-repairs. Chargaff logic: %A=%T & %C=%G => double-stranded; presence of T DNA not RNA. Strands are antiparallel (5'->3' opposite) - a zipper whose teeth only fit their partner, run in opposite directions on each side. Double helix Complementary base pairing P A T P Mitochondrion P Ribosomes Our schematic . the eukaryotic cell - each membrane-bound organelle is one specialised 'department' .
  • 反向平行 antiparallel：两条链方向相反。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[28]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGlycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleotide = base (A,T/U,C,G) + pentose (deoxyribose/ribose) + phosphate. Base pairing A-T (2 H-bonds), C-G (3 H-bonds) is the most stable fit - and is why DNA self-copies & self-repairs. Chargaff logic: %A=%T & %C=%G => double-stranded; presence of T DNA not RNA. Strands are antiparallel (5'->3' opposite) - a zipper whose teeth only fit their partner, run in opposite directions on each side. Double helix Complementary base pairing P A T P Mitochondrion P Ribosomes Our schematic . the eukaryotic cell - each membrane-bound organelle is one specialised 'department' .
• 考试常用推断（你要会“从数据推回结构”）
  • 用 2 vs 3 氢键规则推断更稳定/更难解开。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage
  • 用 碱基比例推断链数/身份（摘录提示：会考）。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[28]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGlycogen (a) a-1,4 + 1,6 energy store in animals (liver) Functions: structure . signalling (glycoproteins) . energy (glucose) · storage (starch/glycogen). Glycosidic / ether bond links C1 of one sugar to C4 of the next (1,4); branches via 1,6. Cellulose microfibrils are held by H-bonds between -OH groups of adjacent chains + aggregate LDF - the same IMF idea, repeated. 2 . LIPIDS Not true polymers - held by additive LDF, large non-polar fraction -> hydrophobic. Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids; phospholipid = glycerol + 2 tails + charged phosphate head (amphipathic >> bilayer); steroid = fused rings (cholesterol). Saturation = the lever: saturated tails (C-C) pack tight -> high LDF -> solid (animal fat); unsaturated (C=C kink) pack loose -> fluid oils. This directly sets membrane fluidity later. Phospholipids as surfactants: charged head ion-dipole/H-bonds water (hydrophilic), non- polar tail LDFs oils (hydrophobic) - being amphipathic lets them sit at a water-oil interface > the basis of the bilayer. Functions: energy store (energy-dense, lightweight), hormones (steroids e. g. estradiol), insulation (blubber), membranes, transport (lipoproteins). 3 . Biomolecules . NUCLEIC ACIDS & cont. PROTEIN 3 . NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleotide = base (A,T/U,C,G) + pentose (deoxyribose/ribose) + phosphate. Base pairing A-T (2 H-bonds), C-G (3 H-bonds) is the most stable fit - and is why DNA self-copies & self-repairs. Chargaff logic: %A=%T & %C=%G => double-stranded; presence of T DNA not RNA. Strands are antiparallel (5'->3' opposite) - a zipper whose teeth only fit their partner, run in opposite directions on each side. Double helix Complementary base pairing P A T P Mitochondrion P Ribosomes Our schematic . the eukaryotic cell - each membrane-bound organelle is one specialised 'department' .
  • 写互补链：注意 反向平行。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage
• DNA / RNA 的角色（读题就要能立刻对号入座）
  • DNA：储存遗传信息。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage
  • mRNA：携带基因信息（codons）。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary
  • tRNA：钥匙形接合器（anticodon + amino acid；CCA-3' 端连氨基酸）。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[25]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfmRNA, tRNA, rRNA Picture the players: mRNA = the recipe card, tRNA = the waiter carrying one ingredient, rRNA = the kitchen bench where it all comes together. Shape = job: a flat message, a key-shaped adaptor, a machine that reads. 10c . Reading a Sequence MST DRILL 1. Find the template - RNA pol reads it 3'-> 5' 2. Build mRNA 5'-> 3' - complementary, with U for T 3. Split into codons from the start (AUG) 4. Read the codon table -> the peptide, N->C Mind the reading frame: shift by one base and every downstream codon changes. Because the code is redundant, a base change can be silent - but a frameshift rarely is. 10d . The Ribosome Sites A . P . E · A site - arrival of the next charged tRNA · E site - spent tRNA exits The ribosome ratchets one codon at a time until a stop codon is reached and the polypeptide is released. 11 . Cell Cycle L9 . REGULATED & Mitosis DIVISION Eukaryotic cell cycle: G0 (resting) / G1 (prep) / S (DNA synthesis) / G2 (prep) / M (mitosis). Gated at checkpoints by Cyclin-CDK complexes - the cell only divides after passing each. M Interphase G1 => 5 => G2 G1 G2 G0 S DNA synthesis
  • rRNA：构成核糖体（读信息的机器）。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[25]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfmRNA, tRNA, rRNA Picture the players: mRNA = the recipe card, tRNA = the waiter carrying one ingredient, rRNA = the kitchen bench where it all comes together. Shape = job: a flat message, a key-shaped adaptor, a machine that reads. 10c . Reading a Sequence MST DRILL 1. Find the template - RNA pol reads it 3'-> 5' 2. Build mRNA 5'-> 3' - complementary, with U for T 3. Split into codons from the start (AUG) 4. Read the codon table -> the peptide, N->C Mind the reading frame: shift by one base and every downstream codon changes. Because the code is redundant, a base change can be silent - but a frameshift rarely is. 10d . The Ribosome Sites A . P . E · A site - arrival of the next charged tRNA · E site - spent tRNA exits The ribosome ratchets one codon at a time until a stop codon is reached and the polypeptide is released. 11 . Cell Cycle L9 . REGULATED & Mitosis DIVISION Eukaryotic cell cycle: G0 (resting) / G1 (prep) / S (DNA synthesis) / G2 (prep) / M (mitosis). Gated at checkpoints by Cyclin-CDK complexes - the cell only divides after passing each. M Interphase G1 => 5 => G2 G1 G2 G0 S DNA synthesis

• 共同点：遗传密码、细胞质、质膜（plasma membrane）。[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 真核：有膜包裹的细胞核 + 细胞器；DNA 线性。[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 原核：类核区（nucleoid，无膜）；无细胞器；DNA 环状；核糖体大小不同。[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 类比：原核=开放式单间；真核=分房子的住宅。[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。[17]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfBIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 1 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals SIDE 1/2 MOLECULES - CELL . Chemistry of life . The four biomolecules . The cell & organelles . Membrane & transport . structure-function throughout 0 . The MST Blueprint READ FIRST * The mid-semester test is invigilated, MCQ + short-answer, and it does two things: it makes you read diagrams (label a structure, name a stage, read a graph) and explain mechanisms (why this structure gives that function). So this sheet pairs our own schematics with dense structure->function notes. Scope = mostly Topics 1-2 with some Topic-3 genetics. Side 1 = molecules-> cell; Side 2 = information->energy->control. SIA > Every answer is one move: name the structure, then state the function it forces. "Describe + so-what" beats recall every time. 1 . Chemistry of L3 . BONDS & Life WATER Elements of life: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds > stable backbone of organic molecules. Electronegativity = a nucleus's pull on a shared bonding pair (more charge / fewer shells > higher; O>N). The difference predicts the bond: non-polar covalent -> polar covalent -> ionic. Intermolecular forces (IMFs), weak-> strong: LDF (temporary induced dipoles; stronger with bigger, less-branched molecules) -> dipole- dipole -> hydrogen bond (strongest; needs H bonded to F/O/N near a lone pair) > ion-dipole. IMFs are the hidden lever behind membrane fluidity, protein folding & DNA stability. Water (from H-bonding): high heat capacity (thermal buffer), cohesion + adhesion (xylem rise), solvent for polar solutes (glucose in blood); amphiprotic (donates/accepts H+). pH = differences in H+ concentration. 1b . Is It Alive? L1-2 Living things: common elements . made of cells . carry genetic info . grow . respond . mutate . exist in populations & evolve. Viruses are the borderline case - they mutate & evolve but aren't cells, can't grow or extract their own energy (must hijack a host). Prokaryote vs eukaryote (heavily tested): both share the genetic code, cytoplasm & a plasma membrane. Eukaryote = membrane-bound nucleus + organelles, DNA linear. Prokaryote = nucleoid (no membrane), no organelles, DNA circular; ribosomes also differ in size. Think open-plan studio (prokaryote) vs a house with separate rooms (eukaryote). 2 . The Master Reaction BUILD VS BREAK Condensation = two monomers join, a water leaves, a bond forms (glycosidic / peptide / ester). Hydrolysis = water is added, the bond breaks. They are exact reverses - the single most reused idea in the course (it returns as anabolism vs catabolismin metabolism). A polymer is a chain of repeating monomer subunits (e. g. starch = many a-glucose). Snapping LEGO together pops out a drop of water (condensation); prying apart needs you to add one (hydrolysis).
• 考点提醒：不仅要“列差异”，还要会说 “为什么区室化重要”。[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。

• 核膜 → ER → Golgi → 囊泡/溶酶体 → 质膜。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary
• 粗面 ER（有核糖体）做蛋白；光面 ER 没有核糖体。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary
• ER 与核膜连续。[23]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf4 . The Cell & Organelles L7-8 . THE ROOMS Each membrane-bound room runs one specialised job - division of labour . The endomembrane system is a connected set: nuclear envelope -> ER -> Golgi -> vesicles/lysosomes > plasma membrane. Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes protein; smooth ER does not. The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Nucleolus antiparallel atrandia Our schematic . DNA double helix - antiparallel strands; A=T (2 H-bonds), G=C (3); a base only fits its partner. 3 RNAS . SHAPE = JOB mRNA = transcribed copy, carries codons. tRNA = key- shaped; CCA-3' end holds the amino acid; the anticodon pairs with the mRNA codon - this is how a triplet becomes an amino acid. rRNA = folds into the two ribosomal subunits (site of synthesis). 4 . PROTEINS Amino acid = a-C + H + -NH2 + -COOH + variable R group. Peptide bond = condensation amide. R-groups drive folding (H-bond, ionic, ion-dipole, disulfide -S-S-, hydrophobic LDF). LEVEL WHAT & FROM 1° Primary aa sequence, N->C 2° Secondary a-helix / ß-sheet from backbone H-bonds 3º Tertiary fold from R-group interactions 4° Quaternary

• 双层膜、自己的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖等（摘录给了要点）。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer
• 典型题：问“最强单一证据” → 自有环状 DNA + 能二分裂。[8]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . PRACTICE Q11-14 - PRACTICE BANK (CONT. ) MIXED . Q11-14 Cells, inheritance & mitosis 细胞、遗传与有丝分裂 Four more items spanning the MST window 再来四道题,覆盖整个 MST 范围 Q11 MCQ endosymbiosis evidence Which observation is the best single piece of evidence that the mitochondrion descended from a free-living bacterium? 下列哪一项观察是“线粒体起源于一种自由生活的细菌”这一论断的最佳单一证据? (a) it is found in eukaryotic cells (b) it has a single membrane (c) it has its own circular DNA and can divide by binary fission - correct (d) it makes ATP MODEL ANSWER (c). Own circular (bacteria-like) DNA + division by binary fission (plus a double membrane and bacteria-like ribosomes) point to a bacterial ancestor. (b) is wrong - it has a double membrane; (a)/(d) are true but not evidence of bacterial origin. (c)。自身的环状(类似细菌的)DNA+以二分裂方式增殖(再加上双层膜和类似细菌的核糖体)指向一个细菌祖先。(b) 是错误的 -- 它有双层膜;(a)/(d) 虽属事实,但并非细菌起源的证据。 Q12 READ THE DIAGRAM mitosis stages XX XX XXX Xxx Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles Telophase two nuclei, cvtokinesis

• 膜是：磷脂双层（头亲水、尾疏水）+ 蛋白质 + 胆固醇。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control
• 选择性来自：疏水核心对离子/大分子是屏障。[14]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf说明水分子在(i) 缩合反应和(ii)水解中分别发生了什么,并指出二者在代谢中各代表哪一过程。 MODEL ANSWER BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery (i) Condensation releases one water molecule as a bond forms (building - anabolism). (ii) Hydrolysis adds/consumes water to break a bond (breaking down - catabolismfull marks need the water direction + the anabolism/catabolismlink. (i)缩合反应在成键时释放一个水分子(构建→合成代谢)。(ii)水解加入/消耗水以断键(拆解→分解代谢)。要拿满分, 需写出水的方向+与合成代谢/分解代谢的对应关系。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . PRACTICE Q3-4 - PRACTICE BANK (CONT. ) DIAGRAM-READING Read the diagram - membrane & replication 读图 -- 膜与复制 Interpret our cookbook figures, then explain the structure-> function logic 解读我们的图解,再讲清结构与功能的逻辑 READ THE DIAGRAM membrane FIG Q3 Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tails Cholesterol Î Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Using the figure: (a) why are the phospholipid tails pointed into the centre rather than facing the watery fluids? (b) Which labelled feature lets a charged ion cross, and why can't the ion cross the bilayer directly? 结合图示:(a)为什么磷脂的尾部指向中心而非朝向两侧的水性液体?(b)哪个标注的结构能让带电离子穿过,以及为 什么离子无法直接穿过磷脂双分子层? MODEL ANSWER (a) The tails are hydrophobic (non-polar): they are excluded from water, so they pack together in the membrane core while the hydrophilic heads face the aqueous fluids on both sides - the bilayer self-organises this way. (b) The channel protein: a charged ion cannot pass the non-polar tail core directly (like repels the hydrophobic interior), so it crosses through a protein pore (facilitated diffusion). Marker's eye: link polarity - position - barrier function. (a) 尾部是疏水的(非极性):它们被水排斥,因此在膜的核心区聚集在一起,而亲水的头部朝向两侧的水性液体 -- 磷脂双 分子层正是这样自组装的。(b)通道蛋白:带电离子无法直接穿过非极性的尾部核心区(同性相斥于疏水内部),因此它经由 蛋白质孔道穿过(易化扩散)。阅卷要点:将极性→位置→屏障功能联系起来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery replication fork[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control

• 容易穿过：小、非极性、不带电（$O_2$、$CO_2$）。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control
• 难以直接穿过：带电/大分子；水虽然小但极性，慢渗透，但可借 aquaporins 很快通过。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control

• 胆固醇有极性 -OH 头可与磷脂头 H-bond；非极性环与尾部 LDF。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control
• 高温：更多 LDF → 更紧密 → 流动性下降（缓冲）。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES
• 低温：细胞提高不饱和磷脂比例（kink 防止凝固）；胆固醇像“减震器/缓冲器”。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES

• 判断关键：相对浓度梯度方向，不是“有没有蛋白”。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer
• 易化扩散 facilitated diffusion（被动）：顺梯度、无 ATP；水通道蛋白这种也属于被动。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES
• 主动运输 active transport（主动）：逆梯度，耗 ATP（或耗离子梯度）。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES
• 能量“存在梯度里”：用 ATP 建梯度（primary），再用梯度带别的货上坡（secondary）。抽水上水塔→放水带动水轮的类比。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES[21]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdf2+ chains (rarely assessed) Denaturation = loss of 2°/3º shape -> loss of function (heat/pH/solvent). Heat is most powerful - kinetic vibration overcomes all R-group bonds; change 2° and 3º follows. Shape is function. R-groups are grouped charged / polar uncharged / special / non-polar hydrophobic. Protein functions: immune (antibodies), signalling (glycoproteins), transport (lipoproteins), contractile (myosin), enzymes (trypsin, pepsin), structural (keratin, collagen). From a linear sequence (1º) the fold emerges, and the fold is the function. VISUAL . STRUCTURE-FUNCTION Compiled by AskSia . mapped to the BIOL10008 curriculum . asksia. ai/cheatsheet/unimelb- biol10008 Fluid mosaic: a phospholipid bilayer - hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in - with embedded proteins. An amphipathic molecule self-organises into a barrier that is fluid yet sealed to ions . Extracellular fluid (aqueous) Channel protein Hydrophilic head OOOOOO L'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control
• 典型例子：植物 sucrose/$H^+$ 同向转运（symporter） 是次级主动：$H^+$ 梯度（由 primary pump 建立）回流时拖糖进入。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES

• 定义：每条新 DNA 都保留 一条旧链 + 一条新链。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.
• 为什么重要：旧链是校对参照 → 突变率更低；DNA 修复也依赖“双链互补作模板”。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[27]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfMST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins. MST link - DNA repair (base-excision, nucleotide-excision, mismatch) works because DNA is double-stranded : the complementary strand is the template for the fix. 9b · DNA Packaging WHY IT COILS DNA -> wound on histones -> nucleosomes -> coiled into chromosomes. Metaphase chromosomes are tightly coiled (visible); interphase loosely coiled (not visible). Extreme coiling packs long DNA into a tiny, divisible package - like string wound on yo-yos, then coiled again and again. The advantage is twofold: it fits metres of DNA into a microscopic nucleus, and it lets the genome divide evenly at mitosis. 9c . The Fork Players WHO DOES WHAT · Helicase - unwinds the double helix at the fork Primase - lays the RNA primer to start each piece DNA pol I - swaps RNA primer for DNA · Ligase - seals the Okazaki fragments together Think of painting both sides of a road: one painter walks forward smoothly ( leading ), the other backs up in dabs (lagging). 9d . Prok vs Euk Replication CONTRAST PROKARYOTE

• DNA 聚合酶只能 5'→3' 合成（读取模板 3'→5'）。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.
• 因为双链反向平行 → 在复制叉出现：
  • leading strand（前导链）：连续合成。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.
  • lagging strand（后随链）：分段合成 Okazaki fragments，需要 RNA 引物。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.
• 常见简答：为什么有 lagging strand？为什么需要 RNA primers？（摘录明确说是经典短答）。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer

• Helicase：解旋。[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.[27]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfMST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins. MST link - DNA repair (base-excision, nucleotide-excision, mismatch) works because DNA is double-stranded : the complementary strand is the template for the fix. 9b · DNA Packaging WHY IT COILS DNA -> wound on histones -> nucleosomes -> coiled into chromosomes. Metaphase chromosomes are tightly coiled (visible); interphase loosely coiled (not visible). Extreme coiling packs long DNA into a tiny, divisible package - like string wound on yo-yos, then coiled again and again. The advantage is twofold: it fits metres of DNA into a microscopic nucleus, and it lets the genome divide evenly at mitosis. 9c . The Fork Players WHO DOES WHAT · Helicase - unwinds the double helix at the fork Primase - lays the RNA primer to start each piece DNA pol I - swaps RNA primer for DNA · Ligase - seals the Okazaki fragments together Think of painting both sides of a road: one painter walks forward smoothly ( leading ), the other backs up in dabs (lagging). 9d . Prok vs Euk Replication CONTRAST PROKARYOTE
• Primase：合成 RNA primer。[27]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfMST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins. MST link - DNA repair (base-excision, nucleotide-excision, mismatch) works because DNA is double-stranded : the complementary strand is the template for the fix. 9b · DNA Packaging WHY IT COILS DNA -> wound on histones -> nucleosomes -> coiled into chromosomes. Metaphase chromosomes are tightly coiled (visible); interphase loosely coiled (not visible). Extreme coiling packs long DNA into a tiny, divisible package - like string wound on yo-yos, then coiled again and again. The advantage is twofold: it fits metres of DNA into a microscopic nucleus, and it lets the genome divide evenly at mitosis. 9c . The Fork Players WHO DOES WHAT · Helicase - unwinds the double helix at the fork Primase - lays the RNA primer to start each piece DNA pol I - swaps RNA primer for DNA · Ligase - seals the Okazaki fragments together Think of painting both sides of a road: one painter walks forward smoothly ( leading ), the other backs up in dabs (lagging). 9d . Prok vs Euk Replication CONTRAST PROKARYOTE
• DNA pol I：把 RNA primer 换成 DNA。[27]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfMST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins. MST link - DNA repair (base-excision, nucleotide-excision, mismatch) works because DNA is double-stranded : the complementary strand is the template for the fix. 9b · DNA Packaging WHY IT COILS DNA -> wound on histones -> nucleosomes -> coiled into chromosomes. Metaphase chromosomes are tightly coiled (visible); interphase loosely coiled (not visible). Extreme coiling packs long DNA into a tiny, divisible package - like string wound on yo-yos, then coiled again and again. The advantage is twofold: it fits metres of DNA into a microscopic nucleus, and it lets the genome divide evenly at mitosis. 9c . The Fork Players WHO DOES WHAT · Helicase - unwinds the double helix at the fork Primase - lays the RNA primer to start each piece DNA pol I - swaps RNA primer for DNA · Ligase - seals the Okazaki fragments together Think of painting both sides of a road: one painter walks forward smoothly ( leading ), the other backs up in dabs (lagging). 9d . Prok vs Euk Replication CONTRAST PROKARYOTE
• Ligase：封口，把片段连起来。[27]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfMST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins. MST link - DNA repair (base-excision, nucleotide-excision, mismatch) works because DNA is double-stranded : the complementary strand is the template for the fix. 9b · DNA Packaging WHY IT COILS DNA -> wound on histones -> nucleosomes -> coiled into chromosomes. Metaphase chromosomes are tightly coiled (visible); interphase loosely coiled (not visible). Extreme coiling packs long DNA into a tiny, divisible package - like string wound on yo-yos, then coiled again and again. The advantage is twofold: it fits metres of DNA into a microscopic nucleus, and it lets the genome divide evenly at mitosis. 9c . The Fork Players WHO DOES WHAT · Helicase - unwinds the double helix at the fork Primase - lays the RNA primer to start each piece DNA pol I - swaps RNA primer for DNA · Ligase - seals the Okazaki fragments together Think of painting both sides of a road: one painter walks forward smoothly ( leading ), the other backs up in dabs (lagging). 9d . Prok vs Euk Replication CONTRAST PROKARYOTE
• 还会出现：gyrase、DNA pol III（摘录列出）。[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.

• 原核：环状 DNA，单一复制起点（single origin）。[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.
• 真核：线性 DNA，多起点（multiple origins）。[26]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfGolgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES MST REVISION Sem 1 2026 . SIDE 2 OF 2 invigilated MST + practicals 9 . DNA Replication L9 . SEMI- CONSERVATIVE Semi-conservative: each new DNA keeps one old strand + one new. The intact old strand lets the cell proofread > fewer mutations. The antiparallel problem: DNA pol III only builds 5'-> 3' (reads template 3'->5'). So at the fork one strand is the continuous leading strand; the other is built in pieces (Okazaki fragments) as the lagging strand, primed by RNA primers. parental tompilatus (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strind- Lagging altind Okazaki fragments (+ PNA primer) DNA pol builds 5-03' . RNA primer Our schematic . replication fork - leading strand continuous; lagging strand in Okazaki fragments (5'-3' only). Other players: helicase (unwinds), gyrase, primase, DNA pol I, ligase. Prokaryote = circular DNA, single origin; eukaryote = linear, multiple origins.

• G0（休眠）/ G1（准备）/ S（DNA 合成）/ G2（准备）/ M（有丝分裂）。[25]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfmRNA, tRNA, rRNA Picture the players: mRNA = the recipe card, tRNA = the waiter carrying one ingredient, rRNA = the kitchen bench where it all comes together. Shape = job: a flat message, a key-shaped adaptor, a machine that reads. 10c . Reading a Sequence MST DRILL 1. Find the template - RNA pol reads it 3'-> 5' 2. Build mRNA 5'-> 3' - complementary, with U for T 3. Split into codons from the start (AUG) 4. Read the codon table -> the peptide, N->C Mind the reading frame: shift by one base and every downstream codon changes. Because the code is redundant, a base change can be silent - but a frameshift rarely is. 10d . The Ribosome Sites A . P . E · A site - arrival of the next charged tRNA · E site - spent tRNA exits The ribosome ratchets one codon at a time until a stop codon is reached and the polypeptide is released. 11 . Cell Cycle L9 . REGULATED & Mitosis DIVISION Eukaryotic cell cycle: G0 (resting) / G1 (prep) / S (DNA synthesis) / G2 (prep) / M (mitosis). Gated at checkpoints by Cyclin-CDK complexes - the cell only divides after passing each. M Interphase G1 => 5 => G2 G1 G2 G0 S DNA synthesis
• 关卡：Cyclin-CDK complexes 控制检查点（checkpoints）。[25]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfmRNA, tRNA, rRNA Picture the players: mRNA = the recipe card, tRNA = the waiter carrying one ingredient, rRNA = the kitchen bench where it all comes together. Shape = job: a flat message, a key-shaped adaptor, a machine that reads. 10c . Reading a Sequence MST DRILL 1. Find the template - RNA pol reads it 3'-> 5' 2. Build mRNA 5'-> 3' - complementary, with U for T 3. Split into codons from the start (AUG) 4. Read the codon table -> the peptide, N->C Mind the reading frame: shift by one base and every downstream codon changes. Because the code is redundant, a base change can be silent - but a frameshift rarely is. 10d . The Ribosome Sites A . P . E · A site - arrival of the next charged tRNA · E site - spent tRNA exits The ribosome ratchets one codon at a time until a stop codon is reached and the polypeptide is released. 11 . Cell Cycle L9 . REGULATED & Mitosis DIVISION Eukaryotic cell cycle: G0 (resting) / G1 (prep) / S (DNA synthesis) / G2 (prep) / M (mitosis). Gated at checkpoints by Cyclin-CDK complexes - the cell only divides after passing each. M Interphase G1 => 5 => G2 G1 G2 G0 S DNA synthesis[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• Prophase：染色体凝缩，纺锤体形成。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• Metaphase：在中期板排列。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• Anaphase：姐妹染色单体被拉向两极。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• Telophase：两个细胞核重建；发生胞质分裂（cytokinesis）。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• 纺锤体：微管 microtubules。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• 动物胞质分裂：微丝 microfilaments（actin 环）收缩“掐断”。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• 植物胞质分裂：高尔基体囊泡融合形成细胞板（cell plate）。[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• 原核没有 mitosis：它们通过 binary fission 分裂（cheatsheet 摘录提示）。[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• ATP 的主要功能：捕获并转移细胞内自由能，连接放能反应与需能反应；它是“中介”，不是终极能量来源。[9]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf§ ATP's stated job ATP 的明确职责 Per the course, ATP's primary function is to capture and transfer free energy within the cell - it links the reactions that release energy to the reactions that need it. It is the intermediary, not the ultimate energy source. 按本课程所述,ATP 的主要功能是在细胞内捕获并转 移自由能 -- 它把释放能量的反应与需要能量的反应 连接起来。它是中介者,而非终极能量来源。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . COUPLING - BIOMOLECULE CREATION & DESTRUCTION One pair of reactions builds and breaks everything 一对反应构建并拆解一切 Condensation & hydrolysis - the chemistry under all metabolism 缩合反应与水解 -- 所有代谢背后的化学 The build-vs-break logic of metabolism is, at the molecular level, the same pair of reactions you met with the biomolecules: condensation joins monomers and releases water; hydrolysis splits polymers and consumes water. Condensation is anabolic; hydrolysis is catabolic. This is the single most reused idea in the course. 代谢中构建与拆解的逻辑,在分子层面上正是你在生物大分子中见过的同一对反应:缩合反应连接单体并释放水;水解拆开聚 合物并消耗水。缩合反应属合成代谢,水解属分解代谢。这是本课程中复用最多的单一概念。 4 Condensation & hydrolysis - AHA unit 4 缩合反应与水解 -- AHA unit D7 released H2O new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer -OH H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added FIG 3 - The master reaction. Condensation joins two monomers into a polymer, forming a covalent bond (glycosidic / peptide / ester) and releasing a water molecule - this is anabolic. Hydrolysis is the reverse: it adds water to break the bond - this is catabolic. 图 3 -- 主反应。缩合反应将两个单体连接为聚合物,形成一个共价键(糖苷键/肽键/酯键)并释放一个水分子 -- 这是 合成代谢的。水解是其逆过程:它加入水以断键 -- 这是分解代谢的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery

• 酶：可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂；底物与活性位点结合（诱导契合/锁钥），形成复合体后生成产物（E+S→ES→E+P）。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点
• 作用：降低活化能 $E_a$，加快反应速率，但 不改变 $\Delta G$。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• 速率影响：温度、pH、底物浓度（会饱和）、酶浓度。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点
• 超过最适：热/pH 导致变性。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点

• 竞争性抑制：堵活性位点；可用更多底物“打败”。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点
• 非竞争/变构抑制：结合别处，降低最大速率。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点

• 定义：终产物 D 反过来抑制第一个酶（常绑定变构位点）→ 负反馈。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点
• 类比：恒温器（足够暖就关加热器）。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点
• PFK 情景（样题逻辑）：ATP 多时 ATP 在变构位点抑制 PFK；若药物阻断 ATP 结合 → 刹车失灵 → ATP 充足仍持续糖酵解。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点

• apoenzyme：只有蛋白部分。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点
• holoenzyme：蛋白 + 辅因子/辅酶。[12]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfFEEDBACK INHIBITION A - B - C - D (end-product) D inhibits enzyme 1 (binds its allosteric site) - negative feedback i Analogy - a thermostat 类比 -- 恒温器 Feedback inhibition is a thermostat: once the room (end-product) is warm enough, the heater (first enzyme) switches off. As it cools, the heater comes back on. The product controls its own supply - no external manager needed. 反馈抑制就像一个恒温器:一旦房间(终产物)足够 暖,加热器(第一个酶)就关闭。随着温度下降,加 热器又重新开启。产物控制着自身的供给 -- 无需外 部管理者。 ★ The PFK scenario (sample MST) PFK 情景题 (MST 样题) Phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early glycolysis enzyme, is normally inhibited at its allosteric site by abundant ATP - classic negative feedback. If a drug blocks ATP binding to that allosteric site, the brake is gone: glycolysis keeps running even when ATP is plentiful, because the feedback signal can no longer register. Allosteric enzymes are exactly the ones regulated this way. 磷酸果糖激酶(PFK)是糖酵解的早期酶,通常在其 变构位点受充足的 ATP 抑制 -- 这是典型的负反馈。 如果一种药物阻断 ATP 与该变构位点的结合,制动便 消失了:糖酵解即便在 ATP 充足时仍持续运行,因为 反馈信号再也无法被记录。变构酶正是以这种方式被 调节的那一类酶。 Key term check: apoenzyme = protein only; holoenzyme = protein + cofactor/coenzyme. Some enzymes need a non- protein cofactor to be active. 关键术语辨析:脱辅基酶(apoenzyme)=仅蛋白质部 分;全酶(holoenzyme)=蛋白质+辅因子/辅酶。某些 酶需要一个非蛋白的辅因子才具有活性。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Enzymes are reusable protein catalysts; substrate binds the active site by induced fit (E+S-ES-E+P). (2) They lower Ea, speeding the reaction, but do not change AG. (3) Rate depends on temperature, pH, [substrate] (saturates) and [enzyme]. (4) Past the optimum, heat/pH denature the enzyme. (5) Competitive inhibitors block the active site (beaten by more substrate); non-competitive/allosteric inhibitors bind elsewhere and lower max rate. (6) Feedback inhibition: the end-product allosterically switches off an early enzyme - the pathway regulates itself. (1) 酶是可重复使用的蛋白质催化剂;底物通过诱导契合结合活性位点(E+S→ES→E+P)。(2)它们降低Ea 以加快 反应,但不改变 △G。(3)反应速度取决于温度、pH、[底物](会饱和)和[酶]。(4)超过最适值后,热/pH 会使酶变 性。(5)竞争性抑制剂阻塞活性位点(可被更多底物击败);非竞争性/变构抑制剂结合于别处并降低最大反应速度。 (6) 反馈抑制:终产物以变构方式关闭一个早期酶 -- 途径实现自我调节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . METABOLISM - METABOLISM . BUILDING UP AND BREAKING DOWN THE CELL'S ECONOMY The two-way traffic of the living cell 活细胞中的双向运输 Catabolismo releases energy; anabolism consumes it - and ATP moves it between them 分解代谢释放能量;合成代谢消耗能量 -- ATP 在两者间搬运能量 Metabolism is the entire set of chemical reactions in a cell, and it runs in two directions at once. Catabolism breaks big molecules into small ones and releases energy; anabolism builds big molecules from small ones and consumes energy. The cell keeps both running by shuttling energy between them with one universal carrier - ATP. Master this two-way logic and the whole of bioenergetics falls into place. 代谢是细胞内全部化学反应的总和,它同时朝两个方向运行。分解代谢将大分子拆解为小分子并释放能量;合成代谢由小分子 构建大分子并消耗能量。细胞借助一种通用载体 -- ATP -- 在两者之间穿梭传递能量,使二者得以同时运行。掌握这种双向 逻辑,整个生物能学便豁然开朗。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点

• 完全显性 complete。[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• 不完全显性 incomplete（混合表型；例子在摘录里）。[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)
• 共显性 co-dominance（两者都完全呈现）。[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• 微管=纺锤体；微丝=收缩环；植物=细胞板。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• 把：IMFs、缩合/水解、结构→功能句式、ATP一句话、半保留/5'→3'、PMAT、prok vs euk 这些“短句”全部默写一遍。[3]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe mapping you must hold 你必须牢记的对应关系 Reaction Water Bond Metabolic role Condensation Released Formed Anabolic (build, energy in) Hydrolysis Added Broken Catabolic (break, energy out) The same bond type appears across all four biomolecule classes: glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, ester bonds in lipids, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids - all made by condensation and broken by hydrolysis. 同一类化学键贯穿全部四类生物大分子:碳水化合物中的糖 苷键、蛋白质中的肽键、脂质中的酯键,以及核酸中的磷酸 二酯键 -- 它们都由缩合反应生成,由水解断裂。 ✓ The thread that ties the course together 贯穿整门课程的那条主线 When you see "polymer - monomers" anywhere - digestion, respiration, recycling old proteins - it is hydrolysis = catabolismenergy out. When you see "monomers - polymer" - making DNA, protein, starch - it is condensation = anabolism = energy in. One pair of reactions explains both halves of metabolism. 凡是看到“聚合物→单体” -- 消化、呼吸、回收旧蛋 白 -- 那就是水解= 分解代谢=能量输出。凡是看到 “单体→聚合物” -- 制造DNA、蛋白质、淀粉 那就是缩合反应 = 合成代谢 = 能量输入。这一对反应 解释了代谢的两半。 i Analogy - snapping LEGO with a drop of water 类比 -- 用一滴水拆开拼好的乐高 Snapping two LEGO bricks together pops out a drop of water (condensation). Prying them apart means you have to add a drop back (hydrolysis). Build releases water; break needs water. 把两块乐高积木扣合在一起会挤出一滴水(缩合反 应)。把它们撬开则意味着你必须加回一滴水(水 解)。构建释放水;拆解需要水。 5 Energy flow - the big picture 5 能量流动 -- 全局图景 Step back and the whole system is one energy pipeline. Catabolisme. g. cellular respiration of glucose) releases energy and charges ATP. Anabolism (building cell components) spends ATP. The same molecules of carbohydrate, lipid and protein feed between these pathways - intermediates from breaking one biomolecule become the building blocks for another. 退一步看,整个系统就是一条能量管线。分解代谢(如葡萄糖的细胞呼吸)释放能量并给ATP 充能。合成代谢(构建细胞组 分)消耗 ATP。同样的碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质分子在这些途径之间互相输送 -- 拆解一种生物大分子所得的中间产物, 会成为构建另一种的原料。 ENERGY FLOW catabolismbreak) - charges ATP - spent by anabolism (build) energy flows one way; ATP carries it OUT[9]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf§ ATP's stated job ATP 的明确职责 Per the course, ATP's primary function is to capture and transfer free energy within the cell - it links the reactions that release energy to the reactions that need it. It is the intermediary, not the ultimate energy source. 按本课程所述,ATP 的主要功能是在细胞内捕获并转 移自由能 -- 它把释放能量的反应与需要能量的反应 连接起来。它是中介者,而非终极能量来源。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . COUPLING - BIOMOLECULE CREATION & DESTRUCTION One pair of reactions builds and breaks everything 一对反应构建并拆解一切 Condensation & hydrolysis - the chemistry under all metabolism 缩合反应与水解 -- 所有代谢背后的化学 The build-vs-break logic of metabolism is, at the molecular level, the same pair of reactions you met with the biomolecules: condensation joins monomers and releases water; hydrolysis splits polymers and consumes water. Condensation is anabolic; hydrolysis is catabolic. This is the single most reused idea in the course. 代谢中构建与拆解的逻辑,在分子层面上正是你在生物大分子中见过的同一对反应:缩合反应连接单体并释放水;水解拆开聚 合物并消耗水。缩合反应属合成代谢,水解属分解代谢。这是本课程中复用最多的单一概念。 4 Condensation & hydrolysis - AHA unit 4 缩合反应与水解 -- AHA unit D7 released H2O new covalent bond CONDENSATION monomer monomer -OH H- HYDROLYSIS (glycosidic / peptide / ester) H2O added FIG 3 - The master reaction. Condensation joins two monomers into a polymer, forming a covalent bond (glycosidic / peptide / ester) and releasing a water molecule - this is anabolic. Hydrolysis is the reverse: it adds water to break the bond - this is catabolic. 图 3 -- 主反应。缩合反应将两个单体连接为聚合物,形成一个共价键(糖苷键/肽键/酯键)并释放一个水分子 -- 这是 合成代谢的。水解是其逆过程:它加入水以断键 -- 这是分解代谢的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[30]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfcheckpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step Our schematic . the cell cycle - checkpoints (Cyclin-CDK) gate each step. MITOSIS STAGES STAGE WHAT HAPPENS Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase chromosomes align at the middle (plate) Anaphase sisters pulled apart by spindle Telophase nuclei reform; cytokinesis Microtubules build the spindle & move chromosomes; microfilaments (actin) form the contractile ring. Cytokinesis: animals pinch via an actin ring; plants build a cell plate from fused Golgi vesicles. Prokaryotes don't do mitosis - they split by binary fission (B/C/D phases). 11b . Genetics . gene+trait T3 L19-21 A gene = a DNA sequence expressed as an RNA/polypeptide; carried on chromosomes & inherited. Genotype (makeup) vs phenotype (observable). Allele = a variant; homozygous/heterozygous; dominant/recessive. Mutation = the primary source of variation (alters RNA/polypeptide). Dominance, molecularly: complete (one product masks) · incomplete (blended - purplexwhite primula -> all lilac; lilacxlilac > 1:2:1) . co-dominance (both fully shown). 12 · Enzymes L11-12 . CATALYSTS An enzyme = a biological catalyst (usually protein) that speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea); it is not consumed. The substrate binds the active site (specific shape/chemistry) -> enzyme-substrate complex > products (lock-and-key / induced fit). Specific shape > specific catalysis > reusable. Enzyme lowers Ea, not dG Ea (no enzy ve) Free energy Ea (enzyme)

• 每张图：遮住图注 → 重画并标注 → 用“结构→功能”讲 3 句。[1]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfThe process broken into numbered moves Short-answer marks come from describing a mechanism in order 4 . Analogy One vivid everyday comparison A memory hook for the exam room - recall the analogy, recover the biology 5 . Exam application What the MST does with it, and the trap to dodge Turns understanding into marks i Read the picture first 先读图 Before reading any caption, look at the diagram and ask "what is each labelled part, and what would change if it were different?" The structure-function caption then confirms or corrects your read. Training this habit is the whole point - the MST shows you diagrams and asks you to interpret them. 在阅读任何图注之前,先看图并自问“每个标注的部分 是什么,如果它不一样会有什么改变?”结构→功能 的图注随后会确认或纠正你的解读。训练这一习惯正 是全部要点所在 -- MST 会向你展示图示并要求你加 以解读。 ✓ Re-draw, don't re-read 重新画,别重新读 On revision, cover the diagram and re-draw it from memory with labels, then check. If you can draw the phospholipid bilayer, the replication fork and the active site - and say what each part does - you are exam-ready for most of the structural marks. 复习时,遮住图示并凭记忆重新画出并加上标注,然 后核对。如果你能画出磷脂双分子层、复制叉和活性 位点 -- 并说出每个部分的功能 -- 你就为大多数结 构类题目的得分做好了应试准备。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery ! Two things this book is careful about 本书特别留心的两件事 (1) Standard biology facts and named structures are stated plainly - base pairing, the bilayer and the organelles are textbook science. (2) Where we describe how this subject frames or tests an idea, it is paraphrased, and all diagrams are our own schematics, never copied figures. Always verify assessment details against Canvas/the LMS before the MST. (1) 标准的生物学事实与已命名的结构都直白陈述 -- 碱基配对、双分子层和各种细胞器都是教科书科学。(2)凡涉及 描述本学科如何框定或考查某一概念之处,均为转述,且所有图示都是我们自制的示意图,绝非照搬的插图。MST 之前 请务必对照 Canvas/LMS 核实考核细节。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery BLUEPRINT - THE ASSESSMENT BLUEPRINT MST + REPORT + HURDLE Where the marks live 分数藏在哪里 And why this is a subject you have to show up for 以及为什么这是一门你必须到场的课 Foundational Biology is assessed in three quite different ways, and they reward different things. The headline is the invigilated mid-semester test (MST) - a closed-book, on-screen test that rewards reading diagrams and explaining mechanisms. But the piece that can fail you outright is the practical attendance hurdle. (Figures paraphrased - confirm on your LMS. ) 基础生物学有三种相当不同的考核方式,它们各自奖励不同的东西。重头戏是有监考的期中测验(MST) -- 一场闭卷、上 机的测验,奖励读图与解释机制的能力。但能直接让你挂科的,是实践课出勤这道硬门槛。(数据为转述 -- 请在你的 LMS 上确认。)[5]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdf如何推进学习 First pass: read each chapter's 1-line TL;DR and every diagram, in order. Second pass: cover the captions and re-draw the diagrams with labels. Third pass (pre-MST): read only the exam-application notes and the structure-function captions - that is your map of where the marks sit. 第一遍:按顺序阅读每章那一行的 TL;DR 和每幅图。第二遍:遮住图注,凭记忆带标注重画图示。第三遍(MST 前): 只读应试应用笔记和结构→功能的图注 -- 那就是标记着得分点所在的地图。 - BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 1 . ATOMS & BONDS - CHAPTER 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE What is life, and the chemistry it runs on 什么是生命,以及它赖以运转的化学 Six elements, a few kinds of bond, and one extraordinary solvent 六种元素、几类化学键,以及一种非凡的溶剂 TL;DR: Life is built from a handful of light elements joined by covalent bonds; how strongly atoms pull on shared electrons (electronegativity) decides whether a bond - and the weaker forces between molecules - will form, and those weak forces are the hidden lever behind almost everything in this subject. 太长不看:生命由少数几种轻元素经共价键连接而成;原子对共用电子的吸引力强弱(电负性)决定了一根键 -- 以及更弱的 分子间作用力 -- 能否形成,而这些微弱的力正是本课程中几乎一切现象背后那个隐藏的杠杆。 - What counts as alive 什么才算活着 Living things share a checklist: they are built from a common set of elements, made of cells, carry genetic information, can grow, respond to their environment, change through mutation, and exist in populations that evolve. Viruses sit on the border: they carry genetic information, mutate and evolve in populations (living-like), but are not cells, cannot grow, do not respond, and cannot extract their own energy - they must hijack a host's machinery (non-living-like). 生物有一份共同的清单:它们由一套共同的元素构成,由细胞组成,携带遗传信息,能够生长,能响应所处环境,能通过突变 发生改变,并以会演化的种群形式存在。病毒处在边界上:它们携带遗传信息,会突变并在种群中演化(像生命),但不是细 胞,不能生长,不会响应,也无法自行获取能量 -- 它们必须劫持宿主的机器(不像生命)。 The elements & bonds of life 生命的元素与化学键 Six elements dominate biology: C, H, O, N, P, S. Carbon is the scaffold - it forms four stable covalent bonds, so it can build long, branched, ringed backbones that no other common element can. A functional group (two or more atoms, e. g. the hydroxyl -OH) gives a molecule a consistent chemical behaviour wherever it appears. 六种元素主导着生物学:C、H、O、N、P、S。碳是骨架 -- 它能形成四根稳定的共价键,因而可以构建出又长、又 分支、又成环的主链,这是其他任何常见元素都做不到的。 一个官能团(两个或更多原子,如羟基 -OH)让一个分子 无论出现在哪里都表现出一致的化学行为。 Electronegativity is an atom's pull on a shared (bonding) electron pair. A bigger nuclear charge or fewer electron shells means a stronger pull (O > N; Na > K). The difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms predicts the bond type. Electronegativity gap Bond Example Large (electron transferred) Ionic Na+ CI- Moderate (electrons shared unevenly) Polar covalent

• 重点看：复制机制顺序、膜运输陷阱、G=C 三氢键规则、内共生证据、区室化意义。[6]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfi Where nucleic acids are used 核酸用在哪里 DNA stores the genetic information; mRNA carries a gene's message (codons), tRNA is the key-shaped adaptor (anticodon + amino acid), and rRNA builds the ribosome - the machine that reads the message. DNA 储存遗传信息;mRNA 携带一个基因的信息(密码子),tRNA 是钥匙形的接合器(反密码子+氨基酸),而rRNA 构建核糖体 -- 读取信息的那台机器。 ★ Exam application 考试应用 Expect to use the 2 vs 3 H-bond rule (G=C is harder to separate), infer strandedness/identity from base ratios, and write the complement of a strand - remembering it runs antiparallel. 预期你需要运用 2 对 3个氢键的规则(G=C 更难分开)、由碱基比例推断链数/身份,并写出某条链的互补链 -- 记住 它是反平行延伸的。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . MITOSIS - - MITOSIS Splitting one nucleus into two identical copies 把一个细胞核分裂成两份完全相同的拷贝 Prophase . Metaphase . Anaphase . Telophase - PMAT 前期 ·中期 ·后期 · 末期––PMAT Mitosis is the M phase in close-up: the moment the copied chromosomes are separated so each daughter cell gets a complete, identical set. The machinery is built from the cytoskeleton - microtubules form the spindle that moves chromosomes, and (in animals) microfilaments form the actin ring that pinches the cell in two. 有丝分裂就是M 期的特写:复制好的染色体被分开、使每个子细胞都得到一整套完整且相同染色体的那一刻。这套机器由细 胞骨架构建而成 -- 微管形成移动染色体的纺锤体,而(在动物中)微丝形成把细胞掐成两半的肌动蛋白环。 4 The four stages - PMAT - AHA unit 4 四个阶段 -- PMAT -- AHA unit D26 XX XX XXX XXX Telophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles two nuclei, cvtokinesis FIG 4 - Mitosis, PMAT. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. Telophase: two nuclei reform and the cell divides (cytokinesis). 图 4 -- 有丝分裂,PMAT。前期:染色体凝缩,纺锤体形成。中期:染色体在中期板上排列整齐。后期:姐妹染色单体 被拉向两极。末期:两个细胞核重新形成,细胞分裂(胞质分裂)。 Stage[7]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfStudents see "protein involved" and tick active transport. Wrong - a ligand-gated channel like aquaporin still moves water DOWN its gradient with no ATP, so it is facilitated diffusion (passive). The deciding question is the direction relative to the gradient, not whether a protein is present. 学生一看到“有蛋白质参与”就勾选主动运输。错了 -- 像水通道蛋白这样的配体门控通道仍是顺梯度移 动水、不消耗 ATP,因此它属于易化扩散(被动)。判 定的关键问题是相对于梯度的方向,而非是否有蛋白 质存在。 i Recap - this chapter in six lines 回顾 -- 本章用六行讲完 (1) Mitochondria & chloroplasts are engulfed bacteria (endosymbiosis). (2) Evidence: double membrane, own circular DNA, bacterial ribosomes, binary fission, DNA similarity, peptidoglycan. (3) Count membranes: 2 = primary, 3+ = secondary (nucleomorph = a whole eukaryote eaten). (4) The membrane is a fluid mosaic of amphipathic phospholipids + proteins + cholesterol - a selective gatekeeper. (5) Small non-polar molecules cross freely; ions & large molecules need help. (6) Passive (down-gradient, no ATP) = simple/facilitated diffusion; active (up-gradient, ATP) = pumps; bulk = vesicles. (1) 线粒体与叶绿体是被吞噬的细菌(内共生)。(2)证据:双层膜、自身的环状 DNA、细菌型核糖体、二分裂、DNA 相似性、肽聚糖。(3)数膜:2层=初级,3 层及以上=次级(核形体=一整个真核生物被吃掉)。(4)膜是由两性磷 脂+蛋白质+胆固醇构成的流动镶嵌体 -- 一个有选择性的守门人。(5)小的非极性分子自由穿过;离子与大分子需要 帮助。(6)被动(顺梯度、无 ATP)=简单/易化扩散;主动(逆梯度、耗 ATP)=泵;批量= 囊泡。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . REPLICATION - DNA REPLICATION . COPYING THE CODE BEFORE EVERY DIVISION How the cell makes a perfect second copy 细胞如何复制出完美的第二份拷贝 Semi-conservative replication - helicase, primers, leading vs lagging strand, Okazaki fragments 半保留复制 -- 解旋酶、引物、前导链与后随链、冈崎片段 Before a cell can divide it must copy all of its DNA exactly once, so each daughter inherits a complete instruction set. The genius of the mechanism is that the two strands of the double helix are complementary - each old strand is a template that dictates its new partner. The catch is that the strands run in opposite directions, and the copying enzyme can only build one way. That single constraint shapes the whole process. 在一个细胞能够分裂之前,它必须把全部 DNA 准确地复制一次,这样每个子细胞才能继承一整套完整的指令。这套机制的精 妙之处在于:双螺旋的两条链是互补的 -- 每条旧链都是一个模板,规定了它的新搭档。难点在于两条链方向相反,而复制酶 只能朝一个方向构建。这单一的约束塑造了整个过程。 ★ What the exam does with this 考试会如何考这个点 Replication questions test the mechanism in order and the leading-vs-lagging asymmetry: which enzyme does what, why one strand is continuous and the other comes in pieces, and why RNA primers are needed. "Why semi- conservative?" and "why does the lagging strand exist?" are classic short-answer prompts. Get the 5'-+3' rule right and the rest follows. 复制类题目考查按顺序排列的机制和前导链对滞后链的不对称性:哪种酶做什么、为什么一条链是连续的而另一条要分 段、以及为什么需要RNA引物。“为什么是半保留?”和“为什么会存在滞后链?”是经典的简答题。把5'→3' 规则弄 对,其余便迎刃而解。 1 Semi-conservative replication - AHA unit 1 半保留复制––AHA unit Each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and one new strand - it is semi-conservative. This matters because the intact old strand acts as a reference for proofreading, which keeps the mutation rate extremely low. The same logic powers DNA repair: because DNA is double-stranded, a damaged strand can always be rebuilt from its complementary partner. 每个新的 DNA 分子都保留一条旧链和一条新链 -- 它是半保留的。这一点很重要,因为完整的旧链充当了校对的参照,使突 变率极低。同样的逻辑也驱动 DNA 修复:因为 DNA 是双链的,一条受损的链总能依据它的互补搭档重建出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery D24 parental templates (grey) unwind at the fork Leading strand continuous (5'->3') parent DNA helicase Lagging strand Okazaki fragments (+ RNA primer) DNA pol builds 5'->3' = RNA primer[8]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH . PRACTICE Q11-14 - PRACTICE BANK (CONT. ) MIXED . Q11-14 Cells, inheritance & mitosis 细胞、遗传与有丝分裂 Four more items spanning the MST window 再来四道题,覆盖整个 MST 范围 Q11 MCQ endosymbiosis evidence Which observation is the best single piece of evidence that the mitochondrion descended from a free-living bacterium? 下列哪一项观察是“线粒体起源于一种自由生活的细菌”这一论断的最佳单一证据? (a) it is found in eukaryotic cells (b) it has a single membrane (c) it has its own circular DNA and can divide by binary fission - correct (d) it makes ATP MODEL ANSWER (c). Own circular (bacteria-like) DNA + division by binary fission (plus a double membrane and bacteria-like ribosomes) point to a bacterial ancestor. (b) is wrong - it has a double membrane; (a)/(d) are true but not evidence of bacterial origin. (c)。自身的环状(类似细菌的)DNA+以二分裂方式增殖(再加上双层膜和类似细菌的核糖体)指向一个细菌祖先。(b) 是错误的 -- 它有双层膜;(a)/(d) 虽属事实,但并非细菌起源的证据。 Q12 READ THE DIAGRAM mitosis stages XX XX XXX Xxx Prophase chromosomes condense, spindle forms Metaphase aligned at metaphase plate Anaphase sisters pulled to poles Telophase two nuclei, cvtokinesis[15]Source: asksia-bible-biol10008-bilingual.pdfBIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery 把 DNA 和各种反应封闭在彼此分隔的膜内,让真核细胞能 够把互不相容的化学反应隔开并浓缩反应物 -- 这跟厨房和 卫生间要分成不同房间是同一个道理。这种区室化使更大、 更复杂的细胞成为可能。 ✓ Analogy 类比 Prokaryote = open-plan studio (everything in one room). Eukaryote = a house with separate rooms, each fitted out for one task. 原核生物 = 开放式工作间(一切都在一个房间里)。真 核生物=一栋带独立房间的房子,每间都为一项任务 而配置。 Exam application ★ 考试应用 A heavily tested comparison. Know the similarities (genetic code, cytoplasm, plasma membrane) and the differences (nucleus, organelles, DNA shape, ribosome size). The MST rewards stating why compartments matter, not just listing them. 一项被重点考查的比较。要掌握其相似之处(遗传密码、细胞质、质膜)与差异之处(细胞核、细胞器、DNA 形状、核 糖体大小)。MST 看重陈述为什么区室化重要,而不仅仅是把它们罗列出来。 BIOL10008 . Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery CH 3 . ORGANELLES CHAPTER 3 (CONT. ) The eukaryotic cell & its organelles 真核细胞及其细胞器 A factory with departments - each room runs one process 一座分部门的工厂 -- 每个房间运行一道工序 TL;DR: Each membrane-bound organelle is a specialised compartment; its structure is tuned to its job - this is division of labour at the scale of a single cell. 太长不看:每个有膜包被的细胞器都是一个专门化的区室;它的结构与其功能相匹配 -- 这是在单个细胞尺度上的分工。 FIG 3. 2 . D18 Nucleolus Nucleus Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Mitochondrion Plasma membrane Ribosomes Lysosome A eukaryotic (animal) cell. The nucleus holds the DNA; rough ER (ribosome-studded) and smooth ER process proteins and lipids; the Golgi modifies and ships them; mitochondria make ATP; lysosomes digest; free ribosomes dot the cytoplasm. 一个真核(动物)细胞。细胞核容纳 DNA;粗面内质网(布满核糖体)和光面内质网加工蛋白质与脂质;高尔基体对它 们进行修饰并发运;线粒体制造 ATP;溶酶体进行消化;游离核糖体点缀于细胞质中。[19]Source: asksia-cheatsheet-biol10008.pdfL'Hydro OC Cholesterol Cytoplasm (aqueous) Integral protein Our schematic . fluid-mosaic membrane - heads out, tails in; cholesterol & proteins embedded. TUNING FLUIDITY (STRUCTURE-> FUNCTION) Cholesterol: polar -OH head H-bonds the phospholipid heads; non-polar rings LDF the tails. At higher temp -> more LDF > tighter packing -> lower fluidity (a buffer). At low temp a cell raises its unsaturated phospholipids - kinks keep spacing, stop solidifying (taught via Tetrahymena). Cholesterol acts as a fluidity buffer / shock-absorber . Crosses easily: small, non-polar, uncharged (O2, CO2). Cannot: large or charged. Water is small but polar > slow osmosis, fast via aquaporins. SIA - A ligand-gated channel like an aquaporin is still facilitated diffusion - passive. "Channel/carrier" does not mean "active"; only moving against the gradient (spending ATP or an ion gradient) is active. 5b . Why It Selects THE PAYOFF The cell trades free passage for control : passive crossing is free but uncontrolled; spending ATP on pumps buys the power to set concentrations, hold an ion gradient, and store energy it can later spend (secondary transport). Pump uphill into a tank (primary), then let the downhill flow turn a wheel (secondary). A plant sucrose/H+ symporter is the textbook secondary case: the H+ gradient (built by a primary pump) flows back in and drags sucrose up with it. The cell stores energy in the gradient itself, then spends it to move other cargo. AskSia CHEAT SHEET SERIES visual revision . check your current subject guide . @ 2026 flip - for side 2 . information, energy & control Golgi apparatus P G C AT (2) . G(triple)C (3) Rough ER filament ~7nm BIOL10008 Foundational Biology: Life's Machinery UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE . SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES

• 分子/膜/复制（Topic 1-2）为主？
• 还是更偏能量代谢/信号/遗传？