ES1103 Chap.8 Five Traditions behind an Argument
Five Traditions behind an Argument
A definition built from several traditions
The course note on argumentative writing opens with a working definition assembled from several schools of thought.
In paraphrase, it treats argument as a response to a pressing issue that tries to win over a particular audience: claims are backed by evidence and reasoning, other viewpoints are taken seriously, and the goal is the audience's adherence in a specific rhetorical situation.
Each part of that sentence comes from a different tradition, and the note treats them as building on one another over time rather than as rival theories.
The five traditions
Aristotelian rhetoric asks how an audience is persuaded, and answers with credible reasoning and appeals adapted to the audience: ethos, pathos and logos.
Toulmin's model asks how a contestable claim is justified, and breaks the answer into claim, grounds, warrant, backing, qualifier and rebuttal. Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca's new rhetoric asks how adherence is secured, and stresses that it depends on values that are historically and socially situated, so audiences may agree to different degrees.
Rogerian argument asks how disagreement can be engaged productively, through fair representation of opposing views and the search for common ground.
Bitzer's rhetorical situation asks why an argument is needed now, answering with exigence, audience and constraints.
From theory to writing moves
The note then turns the traditions into five practical steps, each with a guiding question from the writer's perspective. Begin with a meaningful issue and explain why it matters now.
Formulate a clear, debatable claim and justify it with evidence and reasoning, acknowledging limitations and counterarguments. Adapt the argument to the audience by using sources accurately and ethically, reasoning readers can follow and appropriate appeals. Connect with the audience's values and assumptions, recognising that acceptance varies.
Engage alternative perspectives fairly yet critically, explaining why your own position remains preferable.
A checklist for the writer
The note ends with seven questions to ask before submitting an argumentative essay, covering the importance of the issue, whether the position is clear and debatable, the sufficiency of evidence and reasoning, audience expectations, audience values, fair engagement with opposing views, and why your position is more convincing than the alternatives.
The checklist gives a practical way to test a draft against every tradition at once.
What this chapter covers
- 01
A working definition of argumentation drawn from five traditions
- 02
Aristotle, Toulmin, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, Rogers and Bitzer compared
- 03
Exigence, justification, persuasion, adherence and engagement as writing steps
- 04
Degrees of audience adherence and why values matter
- 05
The seven-question checklist before submission
Worked example · free
Diagnosing an argument with Toulmin's terms
- 1Identify the claim.
- 1Identify the grounds.
- 1State the warrant that links them.
- 1Propose a qualifier that makes the claim more defensible.
Key terms
- Exigence
- A pressing, significant problem that calls for argument, the starting point of Bitzer's rhetorical situation.
- Warrant
- In Toulmin's model, the reasoning that connects the grounds, or evidence, to the claim.
- Qualifier
- A word or phrase that limits the strength or scope of a claim so that it can be defended.
- Audience Adherence
- The degree to which an audience accepts a proposition, which argument seeks to strengthen, sustain or modify.
- Rogerian Argument
- An approach that engages opposing views fairly and seeks common ground before arguing for a position.
- Ethos
- Persuasion through the credibility of the writer, supported in academic writing by accurate and ethical use of sources.
Five Traditions behind an Argument FAQ
Do I need to name these theorists in my argumentative essay?
The course note uses them to explain how argument works, not as sources to cite; the essay task tells you to cite original sources on your issue rather than the course note. What matters is that the essay performs what the traditions describe.
What is an exigence and how does it shape an introduction?
It is the pressing issue that makes an argument necessary now. An introduction that establishes exigence explains why the issue matters at this moment and to whom, which gives the reader a reason to engage before the thesis arrives.
Why does the note say audiences may not completely agree or disagree?
Because adherence depends on values that vary across social and historical contexts. An argument can succeed by strengthening or shifting a reader's position rather than converting it entirely, which is a realistic goal for a short essay.
How is engaging opposing views different from just listing them?
Fair engagement represents the opposing view accurately, acknowledges legitimate concerns, looks for common ground and then explains why your position remains preferable. Listing objections without that reply leaves the reader to decide, which weakens the argument.
Assessment move
Take one paragraph of your argumentative draft and label each sentence with the tradition it serves: exigence, justification, persuasion, adherence or engagement. A paragraph with no justification sentence needs evidence; an essay with no engagement sentence anywhere is still one-sided.
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